1600s: Asian Indians have been present in the U.S. since the 1600s.
Brought by the East India Company as indentured servants to British American colonies.
Landed in Virginia, and in what would become New Jersey.
1680: Due to anti-miscegenation laws, a Eurasian daughter of an Indian father and Irish mother in Maryland was classified as a mulatto and sold into slavery.
Immigration and Naturalization
1790 onwards:
Post-American independence, Indian immigrants began entering the U.S. as maritime workers.
First significant wave (1899-1914): Mostly Sikh farmers and laborers from Punjab arrived in California.
First Sikh temple opened in Stockton, California, in 1912.
A.K. Mozumdar became the first Indian-born U.S. citizen in 1913 by convincing a judge he was Caucasian.
1923: Supreme Court decision revoked the citizenship of Indians, declaring them ineligible for naturalization as "free white persons."
Legislative and Social Challenges
Barred Zone Act (WWI): Barred Asians, including Indians, from immigrating.
Anti-miscegenation laws (1918): Controversy over Indian farmer B.K. Singh's marriage in Arizona.
Bhagat Singh Thind:
First East Asian recruited by the U.S. Army in 1918.
Fought in WWI, promoted to acting sergeant.
Attempted to claim U.S. citizenship based on Aryan heritage.
Supreme Court's 1923 decision declared him ineligible as Asian Indians were not considered "white."
Supreme Court Decisions and Their Impact
U.S. vs. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923):
Indians were deemed Caucasians but not "white"; citizenship was denied based on subjective understanding of whiteness.
Led to denaturalization of previously naturalized citizens.
Affected property ownership due to California's 1913 law.
1946: New law allowed Indian citizenship with a small immigration quota.
Major immigration from South Asia began post-1965 with revised immigration laws.
Sociopolitical Context
Japanese Relocation Program: Official policy of racial discrimination during WWII.
Immigration Acts of 1921 and 1924:
Made citizenship and property ownership difficult for Asians.
Encouraged Asians to develop alternative cultural and material expressions due to prejudice and discrimination.
Conclusion
Historical context of South Asian immigration demonstrates long-standing racial and legal challenges.
Lesson will continue next week with different racial groups referred to humorously as "beans."