Keystone Exam Study Guide Summary

Introduction

• Keystone Exam is a requirement for students; passing is mandatory.
• Failing the exam requires attending workshops and retaking it until passed.
• Guide contains essential Biology Keystone Exam information.

Characteristics of Life

• Shared by Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Organisms:
  • Made of Cells
  • Maintain Homeostasis
  • Maintain Metabolism
  • Reproduce
  • Heredity
  • Respond to Stimuli
  • Grow and Develop

Cellular Structures and Functions

• Prokaryotes:
  • Lack organelles and nucleus.
  • Contain ribosomes.
  • Single-celled.
• Eukaryotes:
  • Contain organelles and nucleus.
  • Contain ribosomes.
  • Single or multi-celled.

Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains DNA; controls cell activities.
• Mitochondria: Breaks down carbohydrates to produce ATP.
• Endoplasmic Reticulum:
  • Rough: Transports proteins.
  • Smooth: Creates lipids.
• Golgi Apparatus: Protein packaging.
• Lysosome: Breaks down food molecules and old organelles.
• Vacuoles: Storage, digestion, and waste removal.

Cell Cycle

• Interphase: G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (growth, organelle replication).
• Mitosis: Cell division into two identical diploid cells.
• Meiosis: Two divisions resulting in four haploid cells.
• Cytokinesis: Splitting of cell membrane into two cells.

DNA and Genetics

• DNA Replication: Produces exact copies of DNA.
• Functional Relationships:
  • DNA, genes, alleles, and chromosomes play roles in inheritance.
• DNA to Protein: Transcription and translation processes.

Properties of Water

• Exists in solid, liquid, and gas states.
• High specific heat, solvent abilities, cohesion, and adhesion.

Biological Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Energy source; structural support.
• Proteins: Made from amino acids; functions include enzymes, antibodies.
• Lipids: Energy storage; includes fats, phospholipids.
• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; hereditary information.

Enzymes

• Catalysts: Speed up biochemical reactions, substrate-specific.
• Affected by: pH, temperature, concentration.

Inheritance Patterns

• Dominant and Recessive Traits.
• Codominance and Incomplete Dominance.
• Sex-linked Traits.

Genetic Mutations

• Types: Point mutations, frameshift, silent, nonsense, missense.
• Effects: Can alter phenotype and genotype.

Evolution and Speciation

• Natural Selection: Alters allele frequencies.
• Speciation Factors: Genetic drift, founder effect, migration.

Ecosystem Dynamics

• Ecological Organization: Organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere.
• Energy Flow: Food chains, webs, pyramids.
• Matter Cycles: Water, carbon, nitrogen cycles.

Homeostasis

• Regulation Mechanisms: Thermoregulation, water, oxygen regulation.

Membrane Transport

• Passive Transport: Diffusion, osmosis.
• Active Transport: Pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis.

Conclusion

• Study guide serves as a comprehensive aid for the Biology Keystone Exam.