Research Methodology Lecture Notes

Learning Outcomes

• Understand the six main research methods: experiments, self-reports, observation, case studies, correlations, and longitudinal studies.
• Familiarity with methodological concepts: aims, hypotheses, variables, experimental design, control of variables, and sampling.
• Knowledge of ethical guidelines for human and animal research.
• Evaluating research concerning validity, reliability, and replicability.
• Types of data and methods of analysis.

Research Methods

1. Experiments

• Used to discover cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
• Key features include comparing experimental and control groups, manipulating independent variables, and measuring dependent ones.
• Importance of controlling variables.

Types of Experiments

• Laboratory Experiments
  • High control, low ecological validity.
  • Reliable and ethical.
• Field Experiments
  • Real-world setting, high ecological validity.
  • Limited control, less reliable.

Experimental Designs

• Independent Measures Design: Different participants in each group.
• Repeated Measures Design: Same participants in both groups.
• Placebo Effect: Used in control trials to account for expectancy effects.

2. Self-reports

• Questionnaires: Closed and open questions; important for qualitative data.
• Interviews: Structured and semi-structured; gather in-depth data but time-consuming.

3. Observations

• Naturalistic vs. Controlled: Natural settings vs. lab settings.
• Structured vs. Unstructured: Pre-determined behaviors vs. free notation.
• Overt vs. Covert: Participants know vs. do not know they are observed.
• Participant vs. Non-participant: Researcher joins vs. observes from a distance.

4. Case Studies

• In-depth investigation of individuals or small groups.
• Provides rich data but hard to replicate.

5. Correlations

• Examine relationships between two variables.
• Positive, Negative, and No Correlations.
• Strength indicated by correlation coefficient.

6. Longitudinal Studies

• Follow the same individuals over time.
• Allows study of changes and development but prone to attrition.

Methodological Concepts

• Aims: Statement of research goals.
• Hypotheses: Predictions made before conducting research.
  • Directional: Predicts a specific outcome.
  • Non-directional: Predicts a difference or correlation without direction.
• Null Hypothesis: States no effect or correlation.
• Data Analysis: Use of descriptive and inferential statistics.

Control of Variables

• Essential for establishing cause and effect in experiments.
• Participant Variables: Personal differences affecting outcomes.
• Situational Variables: Environmental factors controlled to ensure consistency.
• Standardization: Ensures replicability and reliability.

Types of Data

• Qualitative: In-depth understanding; prone to bias.
• Quantitative: Statistical analysis; more objective.
• Subjective vs. Objective: Personal interpretation vs. unbiased data.

Sampling Techniques

• Opportunity Sampling: Quick and easy, but may lack representativeness.
• Random Sampling: More representative but time-consuming.
• Volunteer Sampling: Motivated participants but potential for bias.

Ethical Guidelines

• Informed Consent: Participants must be fully aware of the research.
• Right to Withdraw: Participants can leave the study at any time.
• Minimizing Harm: Psychological and physical safety is prioritized.
• Confidentiality and Privacy: Participants' data must be kept confidential.

Ethical Considerations for Animal Research

• Replacement: Use alternatives to animals when possible.
• Species Selection: Use ethically suitable species.
• Minimize Pain and Distress: Keep harm to animals at a minimum.

Evaluating Research

• Validity: Accuracy of what the research intends to measure.
• Ecological Validity: Generalizability to real-life settings.
• Reliability: Consistency of research findings over time.
• Replicability: Ability to reproduce the study for consistent results.

Improving Research

• Standardization: Consistency in procedures.
• Controlling Demand Characteristics: Minimizing participants guessing study aims.
• Generalisability: Applicability of results to broader contexts.
• Temporal Validity: Relevance of findings across different time periods.

These notes cover key aspects of research methodology, outlining the major methods, designs, and ethical considerations, as well as methods for ensuring the reliability and validity of research findings.