Cognitive Explanation For Depression

Theory: Faulty Thinking Beck's negative triad: Beck suggested that people with depression become trapped in a cycle of negative thoughts. They have a tendency to view themselves, the world and the future in pessimistic ways- the triad of impairments. The negative triad develops from negative experiences in someone’s past. They develop negative self and social schemas and tend to see problems as bigger than they are (magnification). Beck’s six types of faulty thinking: Arbitrary inference: drawing conclusions based on little or no evidence. For example, when Mary does not immediately receive a text back form her boyfriend, she concludes that he is cheating on her. - basically jumping to conclusions Dichotomous thinking: An all-or-nothing approach to viewing the world. For example, you either love me or hate me. I either have to be the best or I’m a failure. Magnification: Overestimating the significance of negative events, Overgeneralization: Applying a single incident to all similar incidents. For example, when you have an argument with a friend and you think that this means that none of your friends care about you or support you. Personalization: Assuming that others’ behaviour is done with the intention to hurt or humiliate you. Selective abstraction: Drawing conclusions by focusing on a single piece of information rather than taking into account the whole picture and others’ intentions. Study 1: Alloy et al (1999) Aims: Wanted to see whether negative thoughts correlated to the development of depression. Sample: Non-depressed college freshmen with no other diagnosed disorders. Half of the sample had a history of clinical depression, the other half did not. The students with a history of clinical depression demonstrated no symptoms at the beginning of the study Procedure: * Students were given a test to measure their cognitive style. The students were identified as either high-risk(HR) or Low-risk (LR) for depression based on their thinking patterns. The researchers carried out follow-up assessments every 6 weeks for 2.5 years and then every 4 months for an additional three years. * The study was based on a combination of questionnaires and structured interviews to identify stressful life events, cognitive style, and symptoms of depression. Results: In the group with no prior history of depression, 17% of the HR students developed Major Depressive disorder, compared to only 1% of the LR students. In addition, 29% of the HR group showed symptoms of minor depression, compared to only 6% of the LR group. Among the group with a history of depression, 27% of the HR group relapsed, whereas only 6% of the LR group did. In addition, 50% of the HR group showed symptoms associated with depression, compared to 26.5% of the LR group. In addition, the rate of suicidality was higher in the HR groups (28%) compared to the LR groups (12.6%). It appears that negative cognitive style played a role in both onset and relapse. Participants also took a test in which they listened to a list of adjectives. For each adjective, they were asked whether they thought that the word described them. At the end of the list, they were asked to recall as many words as possible from the list. The researchers found that the HR groups showed faster processing and better recall of negative information; and slower processing and worse recall of positive information Conclusions: From the study, they concluded that negative thinking patterns did correlate with a higher likelihood of developing depression. Link: The findings revealed that 17% of HR students without prior depression developed MDD, compared to only 1% of LR students, and among those with a history of depression, 27% of HR individuals relapsed versus 6% of LR individuals. Additionally, HR participants showed a tendency to process and recall negative information more effectively than positive information. These results align with Beck's theory, which posits that negative thinking patterns contribute to the vulnerability of depression by distorting perceptions and reinforcing feelings of hopelessness. Thus, the study underscores the significance of cognitive styles in predicting both the onset and relapse of depression, validating Beck's assertion that faulty thinking is a critical factor in the development of depressive disorders. Study Evaluation The sample consisted of non-depressed college freshmen from a specific demographic, which limits the cultural generalizability of the findings. Cognitive styles and their impact on depression may vary across different cultures and age groups, meaning that it is hard to have an unbiased perspective as individuals from different cultures may have different ‘faulty thinking’ mechanisms or other thinking processes which could influence their development of depression. This suggests that Beck's theory may not account for cultural factors that influence cognitive processes and emotional responses. This limitation indicates that while Beck's theory is strong in certain contexts such as in its constructs of the different types and categories of faulty thinking, it may require adaptation to be applicable across diverse populations. The longitudinal design of the study, with assessments over an extended period, strengthens the reliability of the findings regarding cognitive styles and depression onset. However, the reliance on self-reported measures and structured interviews may introduce biases related to participants' self-perception, potentially skewing results. The study's focus on cognitive styles without adequately considering other factors such as environmental stressors or biological influences highlights a gap in Beck's theory, by which it is biased, and does not consider the role of environmental/social stressors and biological predispositions which may make someone more susceptible to these methods/ types of faulty thinking Study 2: Joiner et al (1996)- opposing -cog alone not sufficient Joiner et al wanted to determine the role of depressive and anxious thinking patterns on the development of depressive symptoms. They hypothesized that negative thinking patterns, but not anxious cognitions, would play a role in the onset of symptoms related to depression. The sample was made of 119 American university students, all taking an abnormal psychology course. The mean age of the students was 19 years old. The stressor that the researchers would observe was mid-term examinations. The students were assessed two weeks before and two weeks after their mid-term examinations. As the administration of the exams was naturally occurring in the university setting, this study was a natural experiment. Three tests were given to assess the students. 1. The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale [DAS] This test measures thinking patterns such as vulnerability, the need for approval, perfectionism, and the need to impress. This was taken only before the mid-term exams. 2. The Cognitive Checklist [CCL]. Half of the questions determine automatic thoughts linked to depression; the other half, are linked to anxiety. This test was taken both before and after the exams. 3. The Beck Depression Inventory [BDI] A standardized assessment to measure levels of symptoms linked to depression. This test was also taken both before and after the exams. The researchers found an increase in the scores on the BDI only in students who had higher scores on the DAS and who had failed an exam. Students who had a higher score on the DAS but did well on the exams showed no significant increase in their BDI scores. For the students who had lower scores on the DAS, even if they received low grades, they did not experience depressive reactions. When looking at the scores for the CCL, there was a correlation between having higher scores on the depressive thinking patterns questions and the increase in the BDI scores if a student failed an exam. There was no significant correlation between the anxiety scores and an increase in BDI scores. Link The results revealed that students with higher DAS scores, indicative of negative cognitive styles, were more likely to experience an increase in BDI scores following exam failures, whereas those with lower DAS scores did not show significant depressive reactions even with poor performance. Furthermore, there was a clear correlation between depressive thinking patterns and increased BDI scores, while anxious cognitions did not exhibit a similar relationship. These findings align with Beck's theory, which posits that dysfunctional attitudes and negative thought patterns contribute to vulnerability to depression. Thus, the study underscores the importance of addressing negative cognitive styles in understanding and treating depression, reinforcing Beck's assertion that faulty thinking is a critical element in the onset of depressive disorders. Or … The study by Joiner et al. highlights that Beck's theory of faulty thinking, while significant in explaining the cognitive aspects of depression, is insufficient on its own to fully account for the complexities of depressive behavior. The research found that negative thinking patterns, as measured by the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), were strongly correlated with increased depressive symptoms following stressors like exam failures. However, it also indicated that not all individuals with negative cognitive styles experienced depression, suggesting that other factors may contribute to the onset of depressive symptoms. Study Evaluation The study employed a natural experimental design involving 119 American university students, assessing their cognitive styles before and after mid-term examinations. This approach allowed for the observation of real-life stressors, enhancing ecological validity. The use of well-established measures, such as the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), Cognitive Checklist (CCL), and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), provided reliable data on participants' cognitive patterns and depressive symptoms. However, the reliance on a university population may limit the diversity of the sample, potentially affecting the broader applicability of the findings. This procedure allowed for accurate and reliable data to be collected, meaning that the study shows that faulty thinking alone is not enough to trigger or supplement the progress of depression. However, the results also indicate that the higher DAS scores were still relevant to the development of depression indicating that faulty thinking must still have a valid role to play in developing or having a higher risk of developing depression The implications of this study for Beck's theory are important. It underscores the importance of addressing negative cognitive patterns in therapeutic settings. The findings suggest that interventions targeting these dysfunctional attitudes could be effective in preventing or mitigating depressive symptoms, aligning with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) principles that focus on modifying maladaptive thoughts. This practical application enhances Beck's theory's strength as an explanation for depression, demonstrating its relevance in clinical practice. Furthermore, the use of the sample was a string choice. This is because, the higher prevalence rate of depression is among youth, which is young adults, highlighting that by creating targeted therapies for these individuals, the prevalence rates could potentially be lowered due to the effective treatment the patients could receive as a result of this

Beck’s six types of faulty thinking:

Arbitrary inference: drawing conclusions based on little or no evidence. For example, when Mary does not immediately receive a text back form her boyfriend, she concludes that he is cheating on her. - basically jumping to conclusions
Dichotomous thinking: An all-or-nothing approach to viewing the world. For example, you either love me or hate me. I either have to be the best or I’m a failure.
Magnification: Overestimating the significance of negative events,
Overgeneralization: Applying a single incident to all similar incidents. For example, when you have an argument with a friend and you think that this means that none of your friends care about you or support you. 
Personalization: Assuming that others’ behaviour is done with the intention to hurt or humiliate you. 
Selective abstraction: Drawing conclusions by focusing on a single piece of information rather than taking into account the whole picture and others’ intentions.

Study 1: Alloy et al (1999)
	Aims: Wanted to see whether negative thoughts correlated to the development of depression. 
Sample: Non-depressed college freshmen with no other diagnosed disorders. Half of the sample had a history of clinical depression, the other half did not. The students with a history of clinical depression demonstrated no symptoms at the beginning of the study
Procedure: 
* Students were given a test to measure their cognitive style. The students were identified as either high-risk(HR) or Low-risk (LR) for depression based on their thinking patterns. The researchers carried out follow-up assessments every 6 weeks for 2.5 years and then every 4 months for an additional three years.
* The study was based on a combination of questionnaires and structured interviews to identify stressful life events, cognitive style, and symptoms of depression.
Results:
In the group with no prior history of depression, 17% of the HR students developed Major Depressive disorder, compared to only 1% of the LR students. In addition, 29% of the HR group showed symptoms of minor depression, compared to only 6% of the LR group.
Among the group with a history of depression, 27% of the HR group relapsed, whereas only 6% of the LR group did. In addition, 50% of the HR group showed symptoms associated with depression, compared to 26.5% of the LR group.
In addition, the rate of suicidality was higher in the HR groups (28%) compared to the LR groups (12.6%).
It appears that negative cognitive style played a role in both onset and relapse.
Participants also took a test in which they listened to a list of adjectives.  For each adjective, they were asked whether they thought that the word described them.  At the end of the list, they were asked to recall as many words as possible from the list.  The researchers found that the HR groups showed faster processing and better recall of negative information; and slower processing and worse recall of positive information
Conclusions:
From the study, they concluded that negative thinking patterns did correlate with a higher likelihood of developing depression.

Link: 
	The findings revealed that 17% of HR students without prior depression developed MDD, compared to only 1% of LR students, and among those with a history of depression, 27% of HR individuals relapsed versus 6% of LR individuals. Additionally, HR participants showed a tendency to process and recall negative information more effectively than positive information. These results align with Beck's theory, which posits that negative thinking patterns contribute to the vulnerability of depression by distorting perceptions and reinforcing feelings of hopelessness. Thus, the study underscores the significance of cognitive styles in predicting both the onset and relapse of depression, validating Beck's assertion that faulty thinking is a critical factor in the development of depressive disorders.
	Study Evaluation 
	The sample consisted of non-depressed college freshmen from a specific demographic, which limits the cultural generalizability of the findings. Cognitive styles and their impact on depression may vary across different cultures and age groups, meaning that it is hard to have an unbiased perspective as individuals from different cultures may have different ‘faulty thinking’ mechanisms or other thinking processes which could influence their development of depression. This suggests that Beck's theory may not account for cultural factors that influence cognitive processes and emotional responses. This limitation indicates that while Beck's theory is strong in certain contexts such as in its constructs of the different types and categories of faulty thinking, it may require adaptation to be applicable across diverse populations.

The longitudinal design of the study, with assessments over an extended period, strengthens the reliability of the findings regarding cognitive styles and depression onset. However, the reliance on self-reported measures and structured interviews may introduce biases related to participants' self-perception, potentially skewing results. The study's focus on cognitive styles without adequately considering other factors such as environmental stressors or biological influences highlights a gap in Beck's theory, by which it is biased, and does not consider the role of environmental/social stressors and biological predispositions which may make someone more susceptible to these methods/ types of faulty thinking 
	Study 2: Joiner et al (1996)- opposing -cog alone not sufficient
	Joiner et al wanted to determine the role of depressive and anxious thinking patterns on the development of depressive symptoms.  They hypothesized that negative thinking patterns, but not anxious cognitions, would play a role in the onset of symptoms related to depression.
The sample was made of 119 American university students, all taking an abnormal psychology course. The mean age of the students was 19 years old.
The stressor that the researchers would observe was mid-term examinations.  The students were assessed two weeks before and two weeks after their mid-term examinations.  As the administration of the exams was naturally occurring in the university setting, this study was a natural experiment.
Three tests were given to assess the students.
1. The Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale [DAS] This test measures thinking patterns such as vulnerability, the need for approval, perfectionism, and the need to impress.  This was taken only before the mid-term exams.
2. The Cognitive Checklist [CCL]. Half of the questions determine automatic thoughts linked to depression; the other half, are linked to anxiety.  This test was taken both before and after the exams.
3. The Beck Depression Inventory [BDI]   A standardized assessment to measure levels of symptoms linked to depression.  This test was also taken both before and after the exams.
The researchers found an increase in the scores on the BDI only in students who had higher scores on the DAS and who had failed an exam.  Students who had a higher score on the DAS but did well on the exams showed no significant increase in their BDI scores.  For the students who had lower scores on the DAS, even if they received low grades, they did not experience depressive reactions.
When looking at the scores for the CCL, there was a correlation between having higher scores on the depressive thinking patterns questions and the increase in the BDI scores if a student failed an exam.  There was no significant correlation between the anxiety scores and an increase in BDI scores.
	Link 
	The results revealed that students with higher DAS scores, indicative of negative cognitive styles, were more likely to experience an increase in BDI scores following exam failures, whereas those with lower DAS scores did not show significant depressive reactions even with poor performance. Furthermore, there was a clear correlation between depressive thinking patterns and increased BDI scores, while anxious cognitions did not exhibit a similar relationship. These findings align with Beck's theory, which posits that dysfunctional attitudes and negative thought patterns contribute to vulnerability to depression. Thus, the study underscores the importance of addressing negative cognitive styles in understanding and treating depression, reinforcing Beck's assertion that faulty thinking is a critical element in the onset of depressive disorders.
Or …
The study by Joiner et al. highlights that Beck's theory of faulty thinking, while significant in explaining the cognitive aspects of depression, is insufficient on its own to fully account for the complexities of depressive behavior. The research found that negative thinking patterns, as measured by the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), were strongly correlated with increased depressive symptoms following stressors like exam failures. However, it also indicated that not all individuals with negative cognitive styles experienced depression, suggesting that other factors may contribute to the onset of depressive symptoms.
	Study Evaluation 
	The study employed a natural experimental design involving 119 American university students, assessing their cognitive styles before and after mid-term examinations. This approach allowed for the observation of real-life stressors, enhancing ecological validity. The use of well-established measures, such as the Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (DAS), Cognitive Checklist (CCL), and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), provided reliable data on participants' cognitive patterns and depressive symptoms. However, the reliance on a university population may limit the diversity of the sample, potentially affecting the broader applicability of the findings. This procedure allowed for accurate and reliable data to be collected, meaning that the study shows that faulty thinking alone is not enough to trigger or supplement the progress of depression. However, the results also indicate that the higher DAS scores were still relevant to the development of depression indicating that faulty thinking must still have a valid role to play in developing or having a higher risk of developing depression

The implications of this study for Beck's theory are important. It underscores the importance of addressing negative cognitive patterns in therapeutic settings. The findings suggest that interventions targeting these dysfunctional attitudes could be effective in preventing or mitigating depressive symptoms, aligning with Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) principles that focus on modifying maladaptive thoughts. This practical application enhances Beck's theory's strength as an explanation for depression, demonstrating its relevance in clinical practice. Furthermore, the use of the sample was a string choice. This is because, the higher prevalence rate of depression is among youth, which is young adults, highlighting that by creating targeted therapies for these individuals, the prevalence rates could potentially be lowered due to the effective treatment the patients could receive as a result of this

Transcript for:Cognitive Explanation For Depression

Transcript for:
Cognitive Explanation For Depression