Transcript for:
Comprehensive APUSH Study Guide Insights

The APUSH(er) See also: AP Gov Study Guide Roman Messali Table of Contents Exam Format…………………………………………………………………………… Foreword………………………………………………………………………………… Unit 1……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 1………………………………………………………………………… Unit 2……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 2………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 3………………………………………………………………………… Unit 3……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 4………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 5………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 6………………………………………………………………………… Unit 4……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 7………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 8 ………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 9 ………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 10 ………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 11 ………………………………………………………………………… Unit 5……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 12………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 13………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 14………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 15………………………………………………………………………… Unit 6……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 16……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 17……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 18……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 19……………………………………………………………………… Unit 7……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 20……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 21……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 22……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 23……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 24……………………………………………………………………… Unit 8……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 25……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 26……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 27……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 28……………………………………………………………………… Chapter 29……………………………………………………………………… Unit 9……………………………………………………………………………………… Chapter 30 ……………………………………………………………………… Foreword Hello, my name is Roman Messali. I am currently a sophomore at Georgetown University studying Economics and wrote this study guide when I took APUSH in freshman year in 2019. I really enjoyed the class, but I found that my friends usually had trouble with it, so I created this study guide. I never expected it to be shared for so long—I still receive access requests to this day! I hope this study guide can help you all too. Please feel free to reach out to me if you have any questions about the course material, or want to talk about anything Georgetown/college applications related. My email is [email protected]. Good luck with the course! Best, Roman Exam Format- Grading Scale The AP U.S. History Exam will continue to have consistent question types, weighting, and scoring guidelines every year, so you and your students know what to expect on exam day. The overall format of the exam—including the weighting, timing, and number of questions in each exam section—won’t change. Section 1A: Multiple Choice 55 Questions | 55 Minutes | 40% of Exam Score * Questions usually appear in sets of 3–4 questions. * Students analyze historical texts, interpretations, and evidence. * Primary and secondary sources, images, graphs, and maps are included. Section 1B: Short Answer 3 Questions | 40 Minutes | 20% of Exam Score * Students analyze historians’ interpretations, historical sources, and propositions about history. * Questions provide opportunities for students to demonstrate what they know best. * Some questions include texts, images, graphs, or maps. * Students choose between 2 options for the final required short-answer question, each one focusing on a different time period: * Question 1 is required, includes 1–2 secondary sources, and focuses on historical developments or processes between the years 1754 and 1980. * Question 2 is required, includes 1 primary source, and focuses on historical developments or processes between the years 1754 and 1980. * Students choose between Question 3 (which focuses on historical developments or processes between the years 1491 and 1877) and Question 4 (which focuses on historical developments or processes between the years 1865 and 2001) for the last question. No sources are included for either Question 3 or Question 4. Section 2A: Document-Based Question 1 Question | 1 Hour (includes 15-minute reading period) | 25% of Exam Score * Students are presented with 7 documents offering various perspectives on a historical development or process. * Students assess these written, quantitative, or visual materials as historical evidence. * Students develop an argument supported by an analysis of historical evidence. * The document-based question focuses on topics from 1754–1980. Section 2B: Long Essay 1 Question | 40 Minutes | 15% of Exam Score * Students explain and analyze significant issues in U.S. history. * Students develop an argument supported by an analysis of historical evidence. * The question choices focus on the same skills and the same reasoning process (e.g., comparison, causation, or continuity and change), but students choose from 3 options, each focusing on historical developments and processes from a different range of time periods—either 1491–1800 (option 1), 1800–1898 (option 2), or 1890–2001 (option 3). Unit 1 (1491-1607) Chapter 1 (The Beginning) * Americas Before Whites- Some 10,000 years before Columbus, Asians got over a land bridge in Russia and started vibin * Natives- Mayas, Aztecs, Incas; they just vibin in Tenochtitlan and Machu Picchu and stuff * US Natives- Nomadic people; move around a lot, live in small hunting tribes; some were sedentary farmers; grew maize (corn), beans, and squash; Lakota Sioux * Europeans- Just ignore that Vikings already came to America. * Reasons for Leaving; Nautical Revolution & Technological Improvements, spread of religion, interests in new trade routes to Asia * During European Renaissance, trade between Europe, Middle East, & Asia increased and new technology was invented, such as the compass, ship-making revolutions, the printing press spreading this knowledge easily; all lead to the Nautical Revolution. * Jews & Muslims in Spain were kicked out & Catholicism returned to Spain. Northern Europeans said frick that and made protestantism and then everyone bullied them until the Queen of England, and I quote, said “nah boi I’m protestant now u can’t stop me”. Spain & Portugal Catholics vs. England & Holland Protestants wanted to spread their Christiniaty to Africa and Asia; wanted to travel. * With Ottoman Empire blocking Silk Road to East Asia, Europeans decided to sail around to get to India & China in fierce competition; Portugal is first to try to get around b/c they’re the furthest from Asia so they got the least trade; Portugese get wealthy from early slave trade * Columbus * Legacy- “Discovered” America, killed a bunch of Natives with disease and just murder sometimes, lead to the: * Columbian Exchange- Natives got: Livestock, plants; sugar cane and bluegrasses, steel; guns and the wheel, and disease. Europeans got: food & plants; tobacco, potatoes, corn, beans, and disease; syphilis (not as deadly as all the diseases Europeans gave Natives. * Colonies * Spanish & Portugese- Portugese got Brazil-ish territory & Spain had conquistadors to kill everyone (Aztecs, Incans, & Mayans (?)) & claimed basically rest of the Americas. * Encomienda System- Spanish moved up to South-western present-day US. Wealthy Spaniards were given land grants by the King to use for farming and used Natives for labor b/c they were already there. * Bartolome de Las Casas- Advocate for not enslaving Natives b/c he saw them as equal people. Reported the cruelty he saw to the King but the King was 5,000 miles away so what was he gonna do * Tried extensively to Christianize Natives; lead to Pueblo Revolt where Natives drove some Spanish out of the area. * Asiento System- Natives died b/c disease; Spanish started to import West Africans for labor; paid tax to King for each slave * English- John Cabot surveyed East Coast, but domestic English issues pre-occupied them; religious issues & naval war w/ Spain * After defeating Spanish; English eventually settled in America as families. Started w/ peaceful relations w/ Natives but then they slowly became violent b/c English saw natives as “savages”. * French- Made claims in Canada, slow to develop, and were generally nice w/ Natives; traded furs & meats. French didn’t have many colonies; weren’t much of a threat to natives, * Dutch- Made claims in Northeastern US; New York area. Gave control to Dutch India Company for economic development. Summary: Stemming from the European Renaissance, Europeans had the desire to expand their global power. Evolutions such as the Nautical Revolution, increased desire to spread Christianity (Spanish & Portugese: Catholicism vs. Dutch & English: Protestantism), and need for new trade sea trade routes due to Ottoman Empire blocking the Silk Road all lead to Christopher Colombus mistakenly arriving in the Bahamas and “discovering” the “New World”, which was already populated by 30 million Natives. The Spanish, the most powerful nation/monarchy in Europe, were quick to conquer and colonize the Americas, along with the Portugese. The Spanish were notorious for their harsh treatment of Natives, conquering the Aztec, Incan, and Mayan Empires, while also forcing Natives to work for them under the Encomienda System in Central America and the south-western US (present day), later replacing Natives for West Africans. Other than the Spanish and Portugese; England, France, and Holland were slower to colonize due to internal conflicts, mostly over religion, and Holland allowing a private company to control the colonies. The French built small trading-based Colonies in Canada (present day), treating them fairly nicely. The English, once getting the ball rolling, first sent small families to Northeast US (present-day) where relations with Natives started peacefully but turned violent quickly. However, from all this colonization came the Columbian Exchange, spreading many new products; livestock, steel, and disease to Natives and food and plants to Europeans. Unit 2 (1607-1754) Chapter 2- (13 Colonies) * English Colonies- Began in Jamestown in 1607. * 3 types of colonies (all charters): * Royal Colony- Under rule of King’s Gov (e.g. VA after 1624) * Corporate Colony- Under joint-stock company (e.g. Jamestown at first) * Proprietary Colony- Under individual w/ a charter granted by the King (MD & Penn) * Jamestown- After the English defeated the Spanish Armada, severely weakening them, England became a major naval power. Population grew too large; used stock companies to send people over for wealth; Virginia Company. * Early Life- Miserable conditions despite leadership of John Smith & John Rolfe; disease; swampy area. Eventually got around to farming tobacco; good cash crop; VA company went into debt; King made it a royal colony in 1624 * Plymouth & Mass Bay- Move was fueled by Protestant escape from religious persecution from Anglican Church, unlike Jamestown which was for wealth. * Puritans/Pilgrims wanted to seperate from the Church; separatists * Great Migration- After Mass Bay became a royal charter, plenty of Puritans moved over under John Winthrope; “city on a hill”; religious paradise for Protestants. * Early Politics- Showed development and interest in self-rule since beginning * House of Burgesses- 1st Representative Assembly in colonies; VA; guaranteed same law-making representation & rights as Englishmen in England * Mass Bay- All members of Puritan Church, only males, could vote. * Mayflower Compact- New England; will of majority; early democracy * Voting rights only extended to White male property owners * Chesapeake Colonies * MD- King George split VA up under Lord Baltimore to create MD; first proprietary colony; Catholics came to escape religious persecution; Protestant competition in colonies created- Act of Toleration- religious freedom to all Christians. * Protestant Revolt- Protestants took over and repealed the Act of Toleration for more power; took voting rights away from Catholics. * Labor- Farmers in VA & MD couldn’t get enough from Whites b/c everyone was dying and couldn’t use Natives b/c conflicts * Indentured Servitude- Young servants under 4-7 year contracts; complete authority of master; once done they could do whatever but most continued to work for wages. * Headright System- Gave any paying immigrant 50 acres of land and 50 acres of land for every indentured servant brought in; let the rich get more power b/c more land; encouraged Englishmen to immigrate. * Slavery- 1619 first West African slave arrived in America by Dutchmen. Early slaves were not held to bondage for life b/c English law didn’t say zip about slavery; House of Burgesses then said nah they’re slaves; they became slaves (1660s) * Economic Problems- First tariffs introduced when House of Burgesses tried to increase failing tobacco prices; English set tariff on exported goods. * Bacon’s Rebellion- After VA Governor William Berkeley [my safety school ;)] antagonized poor farmers & didn’t allow them to fight back from Native attacks & expand westward, Nathaniel Bacon went bonkers and destroyed Native villages & burned Jamestown to go against wealthy farmers. Marked long-lasting effects: (1) Resistance to royalty (2) Major wealth difference between rich & poor. * New England- Began with formation of Connecticut and Rhode Island by dissidents banished by Puritan Church in Mass Bay. * Roger Williams; Puritan minister kicked out for believing the individual should interpret the Bible instead of Church. Fled and eventually created Rhode Island; recognized Natives & paid for the land and religious freedom * Anne Hutchison- Banished for believing in antinomianism- believing faith was enough for salvation; fled to Portsmouth; eventually went to Rhode Island and got killed in Native uprising * Connecticut & New Hampshire- Both royal colonies with limited representative government. * Halfway Covenant- As newer generations became less interested and Church membership fell; Churches began allowing more people to become members with less regulations to get in; weakened Church’s power and influence * Metacom/King Philip's War- Colonist & Natives dispute; led to New England confederation fighting them off b/c England was busy w/ civil war; showed how different colonies could join together and fight for a common idea * Carolinas- Royal charters; NC had tobacco and didn’t rely much on slavery, SC had rice and relied heavily on slavery from West Indies New Jersey & NY were royal charters; nothing much else * Pennsylvania- Created by William Penn as a refuge for Quakers- Christians who believed in male and female equality, that religious authority was in the soul of the individual, not the Bible- with a representative government, religious freedom, and unrestricted immigration * Georgia- Last colony; made as a defense to SC plantations from Spanish Florida and as a way to free up prisons of debtors in England. * Mercantilism- Economic system where European monarchies would use colonies to ship raw materials back to the homeland to enrich their country. Colonies made very little things; most products came from England; higher prices. * Navigation Acts- Set trade restrictions on colonies after England was done with political turmoil from 1650 to 1673; made all trade basically only happen w/ England. Good; caused NE ship-making industry to boom, provided Chesapeake tobacco a monopoly in England, & provided colonies with English protection from Spanish. Bad; limited development of colonial manufacturing, forced farmers to only trade w/ England & accept lower prices, & caused colonists to pay high prices from manufactured goods b/c of mercantilism. Ultimately, the Navigation Acts showed the colonies England could be authoritative, worsened England & colonies relations, incentivized smuggling; upset many colonists. * Dominion of New England- New King, James II, decided to take more power over colonies and revoked charters for NE colonies and made it all one b/c it was an area notorious for smuggling, giving the rights to Sir Edmund Andros. Andros levied taxes, limited town meetings, and revoking land titles. James II got overthrown in (English) Glorious Revolution and New England Dominion was no more. * Slavery * Increasing Demand- Reduced migration from England for labor, plantations got bigger and they couldn’t rely on small farmers or indentured servants after Bacon’s Rebellion, needed cheap labor b/c prices fell. * Slave Laws- Colonies started to create laws holding slaves to permanent bondage; began real American slavery * Triangular Trade & Middle Passage- Three part trading system; raw materials from colonies-> gets traded for slaves in Africa -(Middle Passage)-> goes back to West Indies where slaves are bought-> ship goes back to colonies. Summary: During this period, starting with Jamestown, England sent over mostly prisoners to find a new life in search of wealth in present-day America. This led to colonies beginning in several different forms; royal charters were most common, proprietary colonies, and corporate colonies. While the South was mostly made of farmers in search of wealth, using indentured servants through the Headright System and later slaves to farm highly lucrative cash crops like tobacco, indigo, and rice, the New England area was also made of farmers, but migrants came over in a search for religious refuge; Puritans. These colonists developed their own first somewhat representative government, such as the House of Burgesses in Virginia and the Puritan Church in the Massachusetts Bay. Colonies like Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut also had religious freedom. These ideas of self-government and religious freedom begin to form the ideas which would later shape the American ideals. Furthermore, events like Bacon’s Rebellion, Metacom’s War, and the resistance to the Navigation Acts proved the colonists’ desire to fight the immense wealth gap (Bacon), resist royalty (Bacon/Navigation Acts), and unionize together to fight (Metacom). Throughout this period, England also asserted its power, regaining stability after a civil war, on the colonies through the aforementioned Navigation Acts, Dominion of New England, and Mercantilism. All of these colonist ideals and assertion of power from England would all culminate in the eventual fight for independence some 100 years later. Chapter 3- (Colonial Society in 18th Century) * Growth of Population- Many British & some Irish, Welsh, and Central European protestant families moved over (mostly in accepting states; middle and chesapeake states b/c NE was all Puritan) due to an abundance of American land opening, therefore having more children; expanding population; caused colonists to create their own culture * Also; slavery played a huge part in population boost * Characteristics- show root of American ideals * Self-Gov- Though forms differed, every colony generally had a voting system, often heavily limited, to elect an assembly; governors were usually placed in by British Monarchy * Religious Freedom- Some states allowed very little religious freedom (Mass) while other states allowed for non-Christians and Catholics (Penn & Rhode Isl.) * No Hereditary Aristocracy- Unlike Europe, no nobility or extremely rich people; class was based on economics, not status. (Wealthy farmers -> craft workers -> small farmers) * Social Mobility- Other than African slaves; colonists could improve their quality of life through hard work * Family- More families lived on farms and gave birth to many more kids than in Europe. Men had wealth and land owning was generally reserved for men, while women worked as mothers and did chores around the house, with limited political and social rights. * Economy- Relied heavily on trade w/ England * New England- Not great for farming so it relied on early industry through ship-building, rum making, fishing, and timber; barely any slaves b/c production was familial * Middle Colonies- Soil was rich for wheat and corn; used some slaves and indentured servants to help familial farms. Some early manufacturing like iron-making making Philadelphia and New York relatively large cities * Southern Colonies- Majority of farmers didn’t have slaves; wealthy plantation owners did. Self-sufficient farming. Tobacco in Chesapeake & NC; rice & indigo in SC & GA * Money- Colonies were forced to use English money-- gold & silver --; tried to use paper money but it often led to inflation * The Enlightenment- Inspired by European Enlightenment; higher-thinking, literature, science, etc. * John Locke- CEO of Enlightenment; Second Treatise of Government; argued the state (gov) is supreme yet it follows natural laws, people just being people. Argued sovereignty was in the citizens and for their rights, also arguing citizens could revolt against the gov, “Consent of the governed”. Increased colonial nationalism and ideas went into the Constitution by prompting people to think for themselves * Great Awakening- Public expression and preaching of religious feeling done mostly by Protestants; 1730s-1740s * Jonathan Edwards- Argued that people who believed in God could be saved from damnation but ones who didn’t couldn’t; New England Congregationalist (New Puritans) * George Whitefield- Big time gospel preacher; said that those who didn’t follow the teachings of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ and God were kinda just screwed * Impact- Introduced emotionalism into Protestant culture, therefore American culture, & caused division in Church: * New Lights- Modern thinkers of Great Awakening; emotionalism and preaching * Old Lights- Older members of Church; more Orthodox; though GA was unnecessary * Response to Enlightenment as Preachers urged for people to stay religious by scaring them into thinking they would suffer damnation if they didn’t; moved people back to religious thinking w/ some Enlightenment ideas * Art & Literature- No need for specifics, just know it started some nationalism and unification * Education- Enlightenment prompted further education and better ones at that. First big American colleges were created (Princeton, Rutgers, Brown, Dartmouth, Columbia) and people started to get more education and getting better jobs; doctors, lawyers, etc. Summary: This period in American history marked the beginning of national culture and slowly began opposition to England and royalty, though this would be seen more extensively later. With the colonies becoming more and more self-sufficient with agriculture in the South and early manufacturing in the North, a different familial culture arising, the mix of different types of Christianity, the creation of colonial art and literature, and the overall improvement in social mobility for whites, a colonial culture began to arise. This was only exemplified by the Enlightenment which encouraged higher-level thinking, natural rights and citizen sovereignty, which was only to be countered by the Great Awakening which scared people back into religion, though keeping some ideas from the Enlightenment. Overall, this period was the start of colonist culture which would eventually lead to the Revolutionary War. ________________ Unit 3 (1754-1800) Chapter 4 (Imperial Wars & Colonial Protests) * Seven Years’ War (French & Indian War)- Final of 4 wars fought in between European nations; this one solidified the importance of Europe’s colonies * Beginning- France began to place forts along the Ohio River to stop British colonies from expanding westward; Governor of VA sent troops led by George Washington and later Braddock; war started; English vs French & Natives; French stopped British invasion of Canada under William Pitt btw * Albany Plan of Union- Made by Ben Franklin to unite colonies under one system for taxation, troops, and other war efforts; didn’t catch along b/c each colony wanted to have the taxing power; set precedent for later revolutionary Congresses * Effects of War * Treaty of Paris- Britain won; got territories north and south of colonies; certified British supremacy of NA; * Immediate Effects- Established Britain as naval superpower; stopped any threat of French or Spanish colonial invasions; changed views between Britain & colonists * British View- Low opinion of Colonies; unorganized troops, unwillingness to send troops or pay for war efforts, wouldn’t defend new frontiers well * Colonial View- Very proud; confident they could defend themselves; unimpressed w/ British troops and how they fought b/c it didn’t fit w/ American woodlands * Shift in British Policy * End of Salutary Neglect- After war, Britain enforced the Navigation Acts and began to assert much more power on the colonies; wanted to expand British troops on frontier; wanted colonists to pay for war * Pontiac’s Rebellion- Chief Pontiac was angered by colonial expansion; began uprising in 1763; England didn’t rely on colonial troops; sent their own troops; first major test of England's new policy * Proclamation of 1763- To end conflicts between colonists and natives while also stabilizing the western frontier, England prohibited westward expansion past the Appalachians; angered colonists but they still expanded out * British Taxes- British thought it was justified; Americans believed it was an infringement of liberty & “taxation w/o representation” * Sugar Act- (Revenue Act); 1764; taxed sugar; stricter enforcement against smuggling * Quartering Act- 1765; required colonists to house and feed British troops * Stamp Act- Tax on legal documents, newspapers, etc. First direct tax on colonists (import taxes were paid by merchants not ordinary citizens); infuriated colonists * Stamp Act Congress- 9 colonies met under peaceful committee; decided taxation needed to be done by representative; taxation w/ representation * Sons & Daughters of Liberty- Violent group that protested against Stamp Act; harassed tax collectors * Repealment- Protests pressured British Parliament to repeal Stamp Act in 1766; showed protests could work * Declaratory Act- Said parliament could tax and make laws for colonies “in all cases whatsoever”; infuriated Colonists * 2nd Phase of British Taxes- 1767-1773; uh oh * Townshend Acts- Went apeshit and taxed literally everything; tea, glass, & paper. Required raised revenues to go to crowned officials, making those separate from the independent representative assemblies; weakened power of representative assemblies. Allowed for search of private homes where smuggling was suspected. * Response- Colonists weren’t super angry at first b/c the taxes were indirect (only affected merchants) * John Dickinson- Letters from a Farmer- Argued against taxation w/o representation; caught colonists’ attention * Circular Letter- James Otis & Samuel Adams passed message to legislatures to petition for the repealment of Townshend; Parliament tried to stop it by enforcing troops in Boston; colonial boycotts on British goods increased * Repealment- New British Prime Minister argued it was bad for trade; still taxed tea but smaller tax, seemed to alleviate issues * Boston Massacre- Small fight between British troops & colonists; renewed conflicts after brief alleviation; increased Anti-British sentiments * Boston Tea Party- Boycott of British Tea; dumped it all in the sea; some colonists thought it was justified while others thought it was too radical * Intolerable Acts- Response to Boston Tea Party (Coercive Acts) * Coercive Acts- Series of Acts; closed Boston port, reduced power of Mass. legislature while increasing power of royal governor, allowed for royal officials charged w/ crimes to be tried in England (allowed for corruption and bias), expanded Quartering Act to all colonies * Influence of Enlightenment Ideas- John Locke grew popular as did future American leaders, shaping their minds to be more focused on the science of man and individual rights which would translate into the ideas behind America’s Constitution Summary: After the 7 Years War (French & Indian War) primarily caused by an on-going conflict between European empires, some of which, specifically the 4th one, extended into their colonies. During this war, Benjamin Franklin, an important colonial figure, tried to establish the Albany Plan of Union in an effort to mobilize colonial troops. Though this didn’t catch on, it set a precedent of the colonies coming together under one common goal. As the war ended with a British colony, therefore a colonial one, colonists found themselves extremely proud of their efforts in war and generals, such as Washington and Braddock, while the British were disappointed with colonial efforts and believed it was now up to colonists to repay for war debts. This idea carried on to the end of salutary neglect and the enforcement of the Navigation Acts, with a much more involved British policy in the colonies. Opposition to this was immediately seen in Pontiac’s Rebellion, leading to the creation of the Proclamation of 1763, being the first major British imposement on colonists. This policy would continue in a first phase, with many examples, but the most notable being the Sugar Act, Quartering Act, and Stamp Act, which was the first direct taxes on colonists, not just merchants. This would lead to colonial opposition with Samuel Adams and the Sons and Daughters of Liberty, and the Stamp Act Congress, being violent and peaceful respectively, leading to the repealment of the Stamp Act, only for British Parliament to replace it with the Declaratory Act (allowed Britain to pass any act and levy and tax). Then, from 1767-1773, a second phase of even more aggressive British policy began, though these phases are arbitrary and are just a way for historians to classify things, with the Townshend Acts (taxed a variety of imports). However, this did not spark the same anger as the Stamp Act nor Declaratory Act, since it was an indirect tax, but did lead to John Dickison’s Letters from a Farmer, which argued that British Parliament could ultimately not make these decisions because colonists did not have representation; “taxation without representation”. While this book was catching the attention of many colonists, the Boston Massacre and Boston Tea Party occured, proving the immense tension between Britain and the colonies. This would all culminate in the Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts) which were the “last straw” for colonists, closing down Boston’s port, a major colonial port, giving more power to royal governors while taking power away from representative colonial assemblies, and expanding the Quartering Act. Chapter 5 (American Revolution) * Intolerable Acts Impact- Made some colonists believe the only way left was to sever ties w/ Britain and become independent. Most colonists, however, only wanted to go back to how things w/ Britain were before the 7 Years War * First Continental Congress- Intolerable acts drove colonies to send out delegates to Philadelphia expect Georgia; focused on Colonial resistance to Intolerable Acts using free speech and open debate * Actions- Proposed repeal of Intolerable Acts (Suffolk Resolves, passed the Declaration & Resolves urging the King to fix colonial problems while still letting Parliament control commerce, created Continental Association to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Resolves, and promised that if these were not resolved, Delegates would meet again * Fighting Begins- Britain sees Mass as being in rebellion; sends troops. * Lexington & Concord- Lexington was first battle; British Thomas Gage, Colonial Minutemen (Revere and William Dawes); Concord; first time fought, “the shot heard round the world” * Bunker Hill- First major Colonial victory; heavy losses on British side * Second Continental Congress- NE delegates wanted independence, middle colonies wanted to mend relationships w/ Britain * Olive Branch Petition- Colonists pledged loyalty to Britain and asked for Parliamentary protection of colonies; King George didn’t read it and Parliament declared colonies in rebellion; led many Americans to now want independence * Thomas Paine’s Common Sense- Pamphlet which argued for independence; appealed to a lot of colonists b/c of its simple language, statistics, and emotional aspects. Led many Americans to now want independence * Declaration of Independence- Drafted by TJ, listed specific grievances against King George; “all men are created equally” * Revolutionary War * Patriots- New England & VA; George Washington was big commander * African Americans- English tried to pay African Americans their freedom to use in the army; Patriots eventually did so too * Tories- Pro-British Loyalists; NY, NJ, & GA had most; fought w/ British * French Alliance- Basically saved Patriots after many losses * Battle of Saratoga- Major American victory; persuaded France to help Patriots; wanted to weaken Britain * Yorktown- Ended Revolutionary War w/ American victory * Treaty of Paris- (1) Britain recognized America as an independent nation, (2) Mississippi would be western border of America (3) America had the fishing rights on the coast of Canada. (4) Americans would pay debt to British merchants & Tories for land confiscation * New Government- Conservatives wanted law & order vs Liberals who wanted to prevent tyranny. Separation of powers in gov (3 branches), basic human rights, voting for all white land-owning men, higher property qualification for office-holders * Articles of Confederation- Ratified in 1777; unicameral system (one house; Congress), gave Congress power to wage war, make treaties, send diplomats, and borrow $. * Accomplishments * Won the War * Abolished nobility * Separation of Church & State- Religious freedom everywhere and no church tax * Land Ordinance of 1785- Congress established policy for surveying and selling western lands for town-building * Northwest Ordinance of 1787- Granted limited self-gov and prohibited slavery in area from Ohio River to Great Lakes * Problems- Fed Gov had no power compared to states * Financial- Congress had no taxing power; couldn’t pay back war debt * Shays Rebellion- Daniel Shay and other farmers protested the high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money in Mass. Federal gov couldn’t enforce anything; made US look weak * Role of Women- Ran farms and businesses of men, nurses, cooks, some even fought (Molly Pitcher); became somewhat more important but were still 2nd class; Abigail Adams was big feminist of the time Summary: In response to the Intolerable Acts, colonists, still against independence but wanting to mend the relations with Britain back to how they were before the French and Indian War, organized together. One key example was the First Continental Congress which sought to organize a resistance to the Intolerable Acts through open speech and debate. Real conflicts then began when British Parliament ordered troops in the colonies to fight the “rebellion” occuring in Massachusetts. This led to the first shots of the Revolutionary War at Lexington and later Concord, both being the first battles, followed by Bunker Hill. These battles led to the Second Continental Congress, which sent the Olive Branch Petition to pledge colonial loyalty to the King and try to fix relations, which was utterly rejected by King George III, and the rising popularity of Thomas Paine’s Common Sense, leading many colonists to now wanting independence, especially in the North, leading to Thomas Jefferson drafting the Declaration of Independence. As the Revolutionary War waged on, a division between pro-independence Patriots in New England and Tories-- loyalists -- in New Jersey, New York, and Georgia. However, Colonial Patriots were taking heavy losses in the war until the Battle of Saratoga which garnered the respect of France and therefore it’s alliance, helping Patriots win at Yorktown and the Revolutionary War itself, resulting in the Treaty of Paris, recognizing America as independent and establishing American borders. During the war, colonists devised a new government-- the Articles of Confederation. Though the Articles won the Revolutionary War and established the NORTHWEST ORDINANCE WHICH PROHIBITED SLAVERY IN AREAS FROM THE OHIO RIVER TO THE GREAT LAKES, it had many faults, mostly being that the federal government didn’t have enough power, not being able to levy taxes nor enforce militia. This led to extremely high state taxes, leading to Shays Rebellion in Massachusetts, proving the weaknesses of the Articles and how Americans could and would rebel against their own government, ultimately making the newborn country look bad. Chapter 6 (Constitution & New Republic) * US under AOC- Weak federal gov, troubling foreign views on US, weak economy * Annapolis Convention- James Madison & Alexander Hamilton convinced delegates further conventions should be held to revise AOC * Drafting of Constitution- In Phili; All states went except RI b/c they were afraid of the power larger states might have; small vs large states * Important Figures- GW, Ben Franklin, James Madison, Alex. Ham., Gouverneur Morris, John Dickison; all wanted to strengthen nation & federal gov * Issues * Representation- VA Plan; Madison; favored large states. NJ Plan; small states. Compromise; Connecticut Plan/ Great Compromise-- two houses; HOR based on size; Senate equal * Slavery- Couldn’t ban b/c no Southern support; slave representation; 3/5s Compromise made 3 out of 5 slaves count for representation & taxation; Congress would leave slave trade up to 1808 where it would then be decided * Trade- North wanted commerce to be controlled by gov; South didn’t b/c tariffs; Commerce Compromise made Congress regulate interstate commerce, but no tariffs on exports (imports allowed) * Presidency- Limited it to 4-year terms; had power to veto acts from Congress; voted in by electoral college * Ratified on Sept 17, 1787- started use in May 1790 * Federalists vs Anti-Federalists- * Federalists- GW, Ben Franklin, James Madison, John Jay, Alex. Ham.;North rich people; supported Constitution * Federalist Papers- John Jay; Alex Ham; Madison; argued for Constitution * Anti-Federalists- George Mason, some other ppl; small farmers on western frontier; wanted to amend AOC * Bill of Rights- Legacy of Anti-Federalists; addition to protect individual rights for no tyranny; First 10 amendments (freedom of speech, etc.) * Democratic-Republicans- Anti-Federalists after Constitution passed (Madison became Dem-Rep) * Washington’s Presidency- it was good, setted precedents like cabinet and 2 term limit. * Cabinet- TJ- Secretary of State, AHam- Treasurer, Henry Knox, & Edmund Randolph * Hamilton’s Financial Program- (1) Pay off nat debt at face value (2) Protect nation’s developing industry w/ tariffs & such (3) Create a nat bank to stabilize currency & econ * Opposition- TJ & Anti-Federalists argued bank was unconstitutional; Ham argued “necessary & proper” clause- Congress could do whatever they wanted as long as it benefited society. Loose vs Strict interpretation of Constitution * Foreign Affairs * Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)- America would stay uninvolved w/ foreign affairs; specifically, stayed out of French Revolution even though TJ wanted to aid France * Jay Treaty- Britain was capturing US ships & putting US navy into British Navy; impressment; John Jay was sent over to negotiate; Britain agreed to get rid of posts on Western frontier; nothing about impressment; unpopular among Americans but kept US neutral * Pinckney Treaty- Got new territory in Miss. from Spain * Domestic Concerns * Treaty of Greenville- Opened up land in Ohio; Natives surrendered & gave it up * Whiskey Rebellion (1794)- Congress set heavy taxes on whiskey & other products; farmers in Penn protested; GW put them down w/ a militia w/ almost no bloodshed spilled; showed how much more powerful Const. was; most Americans liked; Westerners & TJ did not * Farewell Address- Warned America to not get involved in foreign affairs and make alliances, not to form political parties, and to minimize sectionalism. Also set precedent for 2 term limit. * John Adams’ Presidency- Federalist * XYZ Affair- French were impressing ships; French ministers requested bribes to even negotiate; enraged Americans; Federalists wanted to go to war; Adams stopped it * Alien & Sedition Acts- Allowed for deportation of immigrants considered “dangerous” and prohibited news of criticizing president; used mostly to keep Federalists in power * KY & VA Resolutions- Virginia & Kentucky nullified -- rejected -- the Alien & Sedition Acts b/c it was unconstitutional; secretly written by Dem-Rep TJ & Madison; all happened before judicial review; SCOTUS decided whether a law was constitutional or not * Election of 1800- Federalists lost popularity b/c of A&S acts & taxes. Dem-Rep; Aaron Burr vs TJ; tie; had to go to the HOR; Hamilton helped TJ get in office despite not really liking him; better than Burr * Impact- Peaceful transition from Federalists to Dem-Rep; basically unheard of at the time. Jefferson called it the “Revolution of 1800” Summary: After important figures, such as Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Hamilton, and countless others, decided that the Articles of Confederation were not stable enough to ensure American prosperity, delegates from each state, except Rhode Island who were afraid of the power large states might have, met in Philadelphia to decide on a new Constitution. Key issues brought up during the convention were the issues between representation, the Virginia Plan suiting larger states and the New Jersey Plan suiting smaller states, eventually compromising in the Connecticut Plan, creating two houses -- the House of Representation, basing representation off population, and the Senate, having equal representation among all states. This issue was further explored in questions over how slaves would be counted, the convention eventually coming up with the 3/5s Compromise, counting 3 out of 5 slaves for representation and taxation. During the months between the creation and ratification of the Constitution, factions were created in American politics, mainly Federalists, which were often wealthy Northerners who believed in a strong federal government, their views being best expressed in the Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, and anti-federalists, which were often Southerners and Westerners, believing in only amending the Articles instead of creating a whole new Constitution, believing the people should have the most power. This would eventually culminate in a Federalist victory with the ratification of the Constitution in 1788, but now having a Bill of Rights heavily pushed for by Anti-Federalists, which became Democratic-Republicans once the Constitution passed. This would lead to Washington’s unanimous election in 1789, best known for the debates in Hamilton’s Financial Program, establishing a National Bank and increased tariffs to protect Northern industry, creating the “necessary and proper” clause, deeming that Congress could do as they wished as long as it benefited society, Washington’s Proclamation of Neutrality claiming America would stay uninvolved in foreign affairs, later demonstrated by Jay’s Treaty, which kept America out of war despite Britain's clear violations of American respect through impressment of the US Navy, his quick halt to the Whiskey Rebellion, proving how strong the federal government was under the Constitution, and his farewell address, warning Americans not to get involved in foreign affairs and not to create sectionalism and political parties. The next President covered was John Adams, a federalist, infamously known for the XYZ Affair, once again keeping America out of War, despite the preposterous actions of France, and Alien and Sedition Acts, setting limitations on immigrants’ rights and censoring news criticizing the President, to keep Federalists in power. This was countered with the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, nullifying these acts claiming them to be unconstitutional, secretly written by Jefferson and Madison, respectively. Due to these, the Federalist Party would lose popularity and the Democratic-Republican party gained popularity, leading to the election of Jefferson and an unprecedented peaceful shift in political parties. ________________ Unit 4 (1800-1860) Chapter 7 (Jeffersonian Era) * Jefferson’s Presidency- Tried to unite Dem-Reps & Federalists & limit power of fed gov * Louisiana Purchase- Jefferson bought Louisiana from France for cheap b/c they were struggling to maintain the land & had other affairs to deal with; proved to challenge Jefferson’s strict interpretation of Constitution; doubled size of US, removed Europeans from borders w/ US, & allowed for farmers to move westward * John Marshall & SCOTUS- Federalist courts; troubled Jefferson; John Marshall; Chief Justice * Marbury v. Madison (1803)- Established judicial review-- SCOTUS could decide on constitutionality of an act by Congress or the President * Aaron Burr- Dem-Rep but opponent of TJ b/c TJ “abandoned” Dem-Rep ideals * Federalist Conspiracy- Didn’t get nominated for VP again; joined w/ radical Federalists in NY to combine NY w/ NE states & secede * Duel w/ Hamilton- Since Federalists mostly followed AHam; Burr killed him * Treason- Burr tried to take Mexico & become the ruler to go against US; TJ accused him of treason; SCOTUS let Burr go * Foreign Affairs- Wanted to stay neutral; proved to be difficult * Chesapeake-Leopard Affair- British & French had already been impressing US ships; British ship Leopard fired at US ship Chesapeake; Americans wanted war; TJ preferred economic pressure * Embargo Act (1807)- Wanted to pressure England by stopping trade completely; completely failed and ended up greatly hurting US econ & merchants since Britain & France were main trading partners; repealed in 1809 but US ships weren’t allowed to trade w/ GB or France (Nonintercourse Act of 1809) * Madison’s Presidency- Dem-Rep; heavily helped by TJ * Macon’s Bill No.2 (1810)- Restored trade w/ GB & Fr; if one agreed on US’ neutral rights; US’ would stop trade w/ the other; Napoleon agreed; US stopped trading w/ GB but French kept seizing US merchant ships * War of 1812 * Causes- French & British disrespecting US neutral rights (British was worse; impressment; French only seized merchant ships) & British conflicts on US west frontier w/ Natives & British aid to Natives @ Battle of Tippecanoe * Warhawks- Led by Henry Clay & John C. Calhoun; desperately wanted to defend American honor in war, push Natives back, & gain Canada * Declaration of War- Congress & Madison declared war on Britain for not respecting US neutral rights; Southern states wanted war, Northern did not * Opposition to War- Federalist, “quids” (old Dem-Rep) didn’t want war b/c (1) merchants were doing fine after repeal of Embargo (2) Protestant sympathy to England over Catholic France (3) Federalist saw the war as a scheme by Dem-Reps to acquire more land to get more voting power (4) “Quids” argued it disrupted maintenance of peace & gave too much power to federal gov * Strategies- (1) Hope Napoleon would succeed in Europe & weaken Britain (2) Invade Canada-- Neither of those worked * Chesapeake Campaign- After Napoleon’s defeat; British marched to DC & burned that shit down; tried to take Baltimore; Fort McHenry defended it * Southern Campaign- Andrew Jackson was going apeshit on the British and defeated them everywhere even after the war was done @ New Orleans; got Jackson to fame * Treaty of Ghent- Madison knew US couldn’t make a decisive win, Britain was more focused on maintaining peace in Europe; treaty returned all captured land to pre-war claimants, stopped the fighting, & recognized the pre-war border between US & Canada. Treaty said nothing about British impressment; no real winner * Hartford Convention- Radical federalists wanted to secede b/c of their opposition to war & Dem-Reps in DC; delegates from NE met @ Hartford Convention & rejected seceding but wanted to limit the power of Dem-Reps in the South; wanted 2/3s majority for declaring war; war ended & convention became redundant; weakened power of Federalists * War’s Legacy- US gained respect from other nations for surviving 2 wars against Britain, US accepted Canada as British Empire, Federalist party basically collapsed, nullification & secession used in NE would eventually become Southern idea, Natives lost land, US industry developed & moved towards self-sufficiency, William Harrison & Andrew Jackson rose to fame as war heroes, great feeling of nationalism Summary: Succeeding John Adams’ controversial presidency came an unprecedented peaceful shift over to the Democratic-Republican party in the hands of Thomas Jefferson. Despite the president being Democratic-Republican, a large portion of the Supreme Court was federalist, leading to Marbury v. Madison, which established judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to decide on the constitutionality of an act, therefore giving it the power to veto decisions by the President and/or Congress. At home, the American government was dealing with the threat of Natives and Aaron Burr, who sparked the idea of seceding in radical Federalists, ultimately failing. However, much more importantly, issues abroad were occuring, primarily; France and Britain failed to respect and violated the neutral rights of the US at seas, with the British notoriously seizing US Navy ships and taking in soldiers as their own, otherwise known as impressment. After the Chesapeake-Leopard Incident, in which a British ship attacked an American one, and its response, the Embargo Act of 1807, ultimately failing. war on Britain was declared, under the newly elected Democratic-Republican James Madison, starting the War of 1812. Despite its popularity among Americans, wanting to defend their honor, and warhawks, political figures pushing for war, like Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, it did not come without opposition, mostly from radical Federalists and some merchants who argued the war was harming American commerce and was a scheme for Democratic-Republicans to gain more political power through expansion, many in New England even going as far as to threaten to secede, which was put down at the ultimately uneventful Hartford Convention. Despite the naval successes and the victories in the South, making Andrew Jackson a war hero, Madison ultimately doubted America’s success in the war against an extremely powerful Britain, leading to the signing and establishment of the Treaty of Ghent, which stopped the fighting and returned pre-war lands to their claimants. Despite not ending in a decisive victory for the US, the War of 1812 began an immense feeling of pride and nationalism in Americans, developing US industry during the time of war, and leading to the collapse of the Federalist party, who were deemed unpatriotic. Chapter 8 (Era of Good Feelings) * Era of Good Feelings- Nationalism & unity after War of 1812; one party; Dem-Rep; Federalists collapsed; somewhat misleading since debates over tariffs, the national bank, slavery, and the Panic of 1819 occured. * James Monroe- Dem-Rep; won in 1816; represented growing nationalism of Americans * Cultural Nationalism- Younger generations now felt distinct and American; had their own literature, art, etc.; wanted to expand westward & didn’t care about European politics * Econ Nationalism- Political movement of protecting US industries & internal improvements * Tariff of 1816- First protective US tariff; most, even South, supported it * Henry Clay’s American System- Clay’s plan to develop the domestic economy through protective tariffs to protect US industries, a national bank to provide a national currency, & internal improvements (roads, canals, etc.) to facilitate transportation & communication. Tariffs for East, internal improvements for West & South, National Bank for all; Monroe rejected internal improvements by arguing the Constitution didn’t give fed gov the power to fund them; states had to do so * Panic of 1819- First major econ downfall; happened b/c 2nd National Bank tightened credit & too much land speculation out West; unemployment, poverty, bankruptcies; shoke nationalism & left westerners upset & wanting land reform to reassure their land * Political Changes- Political factions occurred in Dem-Rep party; old Dem-Reps wanting strict interpretation like John Randolph & John C. Calhoun (wanted states’ rights); new Dem-Reps wanting protective tariffs & the national bank and looser interpretation like Daniel Webster * SCOTUS- John Marshall; last major federalist; often sided w/ Dem-Reps * Fletcher v Peck (1816)- Ruled states could not pass legislation invalidating a contract; first time SCOTUS declared state law to be unconstitutional * Dartmouth v Woodward (1819)- Struck down state law; contract for private corporation couldn’t be messed w/ by states * McCulloch v Maryland (1819)- Ruled that National Bank was constitutional & ruled Supreme/Federal Law over State Law * Cohens v Virginia (1821)- Ruled that the SCOTUS could review a state court’s decision * Gibbons v Odgen (1821)- Ruled that states could not control interstate commerce; only fed gov * Westward Expansion * Causes- Large amounts of land open after Native defeat in War of 1812, economic opportunities, improvements in transportation facilitated it, immigration in cheap land out west * Missouri Compromise- Missouri applied for statehood; would break the balance of free/slave states; Clay’s Proposal; (1) Make Missouri slave (2) Create Maine as free state (3) Prohibit slavery in Lousiana Purchase territory north of the 36,30 line; established precedent for free/slave states balance & border for slavery’s expansion * Foreign Affairs * Florida- Overthrew Natives & Spanish during War of 1812 under General Jackson; Florida Purchase Treaty in 1819 (Adams-Onis Treaty) bought Florida & Texas from Spain * Monroe Doctrine- Told Europe to stay away from the Western Hemisphere and not intervene w/ any American affairs; set precedent for US foreign policy in 1800s; pushed by Secretary of State John Quincy Adams * Growth of Industry- Aided greatly by newly built roads, canals, steamboats, & early railroads * Mechanical Inventions- Eli Whitney; cotton gin- greatly increased production of cotton in South * Northern Industry- Samuel Slater; water-powered textile factories in NE; made NE biggest manufacturing zone of US; labor; women, children, & immigrants; Unions; workers organized & protested long hours, low pay, poor working conditions; challenges; state laws banning unions, frequent economic stumbles w/ unemployment, & immigrant replacement for workers * Effects of Market Revolution * Women- Had somewhat more financial control over their lives; Lowell System employed many; legal restrictions remained (no voting, etc) * Social Mobility- Became easier to go from poor to rich than in Europe due to free(er) capitalism, still very challenging though * Slavery- Though many thought it would slowly dissapear, it actually increased greatly w/ the addition of slave states & more effecient ways of producing cotton (slaves still had to pick the cotton) Summary: After the War of 1812 and the collapse of the Federalist party, Americans found themselves in the Era of Good Feelings, an era marked with cultural nationalism and pride, yet misleading due to the numerous debates and problems that occured. During this time, the Democratic Republican Party, the single party in the US, pushed for economic improvements, mostly through Henry Clay’s American system of protective tariffs to protect US industries, internal improvements to facilitate transportation and aid Southern and Western farmers through roads, early railroads, and canals, and the renewal of the National Bank to stabilize the American currency. Despite these initiatives, the US still suffered through the first major financial crisis in US history, the Panic of 1819, caused by the National Bank and over-speculation out west. This would also cause factions to be created in the Democratic Republican Party, mainly “old” Democratic Republicans such as John Randolph and the “new” Democratic Republicans such as Daniel Webster who believed in a “looser” interpretation of the Constitution and internal improvements. However, despite the Federalist party collapsing, one key Federalist remained; John Marshall, the head of the Supreme Court. During this era, key cases were decided, most notably; McCulloch v Maryland, which established federal/supreme power over state power and Gibbons v Odgen, which ruled states could not intervene with commerce, only the federal government could, once again establishing federal power over state power. Due to the large amount of land gained during the War of 1812 and stolen from Natives, a wave of Westward Expansion occurred, mostly fueled by economic opportunities and cheap land for both American farmers and immigrants. This would lead to issues once territories became states, such as when Missouri tried to enter the US as a slave state. However, this would disrupt the balance in power between slave and free states, leading to Henry Clay’s Missouri Compromise, allowing Missouri in as a slave state for creating Maine as a free state and establishing the 36,30 line which would create a border for slavery; all states above would be free and all states below would be slave states, setting a precedent for the balance between slave and free states. During this time of expansion and caused by perceived threats of European monarchies claiming and establishing colonies in the Western Hemisphere, James Monroe, aided by John Quincy Adams, warned Europe to not intervene with the Western Hemisphere or its affairs in the Monroe Doctrine. Due to domestic improvements in technology, such as the Lowell Mills and the cotton gin, a market economy began. This would greatly expand slavery, develop New England as the leading manufacturer in America, improving social mobility, employing thousands of women in the Northeast, and creating Unions which challenged the poor working conditions, long hours, and low wages of Northeastern factories. Chapter 9 (Sectionalism) * North- Most immigration, industry, commercial farming- steel plow & mechanical reaper for corn & wheat in Northwest, transportation, population * Unions- Commonwealth v. Hunt allowed for unions & strikes; crowded cities w/ poor sanitation, crime, & disease; * African Americans- Free but w/ limited rights, normally low-income jobs & strikebreakers- hired to replace strikers; * Immigration- Irish & Germans fleeing famines & revolutions, wanting economic opportunities; * Nativism- Feared immigrants would take jobs, weaken Anglo culture, distrusted Catholic Irish & Germans; first major wave of nativism * South- Slavery, agriculture- tobacco, rice, cotton- King Cotton- foreign reliance on cotton * “Peculiar Institution”- Slavery in the South; slave-owners now argued for slavery b/c of religious & historical reasons; argued slavery was good for both the slave & master; compared to colonial times where it was for econ reasons * Very few but some free slaves in South; very limited rights, always threatened by potential kidnaps * Slave Resistance- Work slowdowns, sabotage, escape, some slave uprisings; Nat Turner (1831); revolts gave hope to slaves & exposed North to horrors of slavery * White Hierarchy- Aristocrats w/ over 100 slaves, farmers w/ ~20 slaves, majority were poor farmers w/o slaves; still defended slavery b/c they thought they could one day own slaves * West- From Mississippi River to California; wasn’t very settled yet (not Northwest w/ commercial farming; more west coast) * Natives- Natives had already been pushed back beyond Miss. River but were left in Great Plains b/c Americans skipped over it & went straight to far west * Frontier- Even though the border get getting further the idea remained; possibility for a fresh start out west Summary: During a time of rapid expansion, the beginning of industrialization, and growing nationalism, the United States was ironically separated culturally, economically, and morally. In the Northeast and Northwest was where the most industry and commercial farming was seen, resulting in the overall highest population, having the highest population of free African Americans, who, despite having their social, political and economic rights extremely constricted, were better off than being slaves in the deep South. Unions, now legal and able to go on strike due to the decision in Commonwealth V. Hunt, began to be created in response to the poor working conditions, low pay, and long hours of industrial work. However, this industry would lead to great economic success, encouraging many Germans and Irish to immigrate over, also escaping famines and poverty, sparking the Nativist resistance, in which Anglo-Saxon Protestant Americans rioted and were heavily against the Catholic Germans and Irish. In contrast, the Southern states relied heavily on agriculture, mostly tobacco, rice, and cotton, farmed by slaves, and on the foreign reliance of their agriculture. Slavery was so ingrained into the life of Southerners that it was deemed the “peculiar institution”, with many white slavery apologists claiming slavery was beneficial for both the master and slave. This in turn would leave to slave resistance, coming in the form of work slowdowns, sabotage, escaping, and most impactful, violent uprisings, such as the one seen in Nat Turner’s revolt, exposing the North to the horrors of slavery and giving hope to slaves. Finally, in the new, largely underdeveloped West, Natives had been left in the Great Plains region while Americans migrated to California and the West Coast. Overall, these growing differences would lead to tensions of several issues, mainly slavery and states’ rights, which would ultimately lead to the Civil War. Chapter 10 (Jacksonian Era) * Jacksonian Democracy- Era of popular politics; more equality between rich & poor than in Europe noted Alexis de Tocqueville (French tourist); white Americans believed in equality for all white men; common man was now important to politics * Universal Male Suffrage- By 1840 almost all states had given the vote and right to office to all males; allowed for the common man to get a voice whereas before it was mostly wealthy plantation owners in South & merchants in North voting * Party Nominating Conventions- Before; candidates were chosen in closed-door caucuses; now; common citizens could vote for candidates * Popular Campaigning- Campaigns became more popular; turned into festivals almost; got the attention of common man * Spoils System & Rotation of Office Holders- Spoils System; put people in gov jobs based on support not merit; lead to a lot of stupid people w/ gov jobs but also let many more people have gov jobs. Rotation; gov workers were limited to one term to let as many people in; increased voice of middle-class man. * Election of 1824- Four way between Dem-Reps John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, & Andrew Jackson; Jackson won popular vote but not electoral vote; JQA won * Corrupt Bargain- Henry Clay used his influence in the House of Rep to get Adams elected; Adams made him Secretary of State; Jackson & his supporters were infuriated arguing private schemes had interfered w/ the decision of voters * Tariff of Abominations- Heavy tariff imposed by Adams; southerners were infuriated & began to support Jackson * Revolution of 1828- “Old Hickory”; Andrew Jackson had massive support from Southerners & Westerners; won election of 1828 * Jackson’s Presidency- “Protector of common man”; vetoed more bills than any president; 12 * Indian Removal Act (1830)- Forced Natives west of Mississippi river to let land-hungry Americans use the land; Bureau of Indian Affairs was created to assist the resettlement of tribes; most politicians were in agreement * Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831)- Ruled Cherokee Nation was not a foreign nation & could not sue SCOTUS * Worcester v Georgia (1832)- Ruled that the state of Georgia could not interfere w/ Cherokee territory * Eitherways, w/o President support neither of these could’ve worked; Cherokee were removed; Trail of Tears * Nullification Crisis- South Carolina nullified tariff of 1828 & a new tariff in 1832; convention in SC met & prohibited collection of tariffs in SC; Jackson saw this as treason & prepared military action; came to compromise -- lower the tariff; set precedent of Southern states nullifying tariffs; states rights’ * Bank Veto- Jackson vetoed continuation of National Bank despite it working well b/c he didn’t trust banks, saw it as unconstitutional, & wanted to weaken his political enemy; Henry Clay. * Pet Banks- Distributed wealth of National Bank to local banks w/ help of Treasurer Roger Taney * Panic of 1837- After Jackson but happened b/c of Jackson; pet banks & specie circular -- payments for land had to be made in gold or silver -- led to mass inflation; poverty; unemployment; the usual; whigs blamed Democrats laissez-faire economics -- little gov action in economics * Two-Party System- Democrats; Jackson; Jefferson Dem-Reps- South & Western frontier- South, wealthy farmers & common man, states’ rights leaning, pro-slavery, etc vs. Whigs; Henry Clay; Hamilton Federalists- North, bankers, strong gov, anti-slavery, etc. * Election of 1840- William Harrison won over Van Buren (who served during Panic of 1837) b/c Americans were annoyed over poor state of econ. Made whigs a national party Summary: During the Era of Good Feelings, a large expansion in voters was seen. This was primarily due to Universal Male Suffrage, letting all white males vote, campaigns become more popular and attracting the common man more, and the Spoils System, which appointed government workers off of support, not merit, allowing many more Americans get a voice and be gain government jobs, mostly, the middle-class, also allowing for many unqualified people to land jobs in the government. This was all best seen in the election of 1828, where war-hero, “Old Hickory” Andrew Jackson won, a man of the people, gaining additional support after the Corrupt Bargain in John Quincy Adams’ presidency in which Henry Clay used his influence to get Adams the electoral vote in return for becoming Secretary of State, and the Tariff of Abominations, a heavy tariff hated among Southerners, in 1828, both of which infuriated Southern and Western farmers-- the common man. Jackson’s presidency is most famous for his overuse of power in vetoing bills, the Indian Removal Act leading to the Trail of Tears in which thousands of Natives were removed from their land and pushed west of the Mississippi, the Nullification Crisis in South Carolina which almost prompted military intervention and set the precedent of Southern states nullifying acts to push their states’ rights ideas, and the veto of the National Bank, leading to the Panic of 1837. This panic, set in place by Jackson and poorly handled by his successor, Van Buren, strengthened the Whigs party, who were primarily Northerners supporting internal improvements and resembling Hamilton’s Federalists. This in turn created a two- party system between Democrats, who continued the ideas of Jefferson, and whigs, who continued the ideas of Hamilton. The Whigs rose to power and set themselves as a prominent form in the election of 1840, which began the end of Jacksonian Democrats, as events succeeding it would lead to debates over slavery, which Jackson did not tackle. Chapter 11- (Antebellum/Reform) * 2nd Great Awakening- In response to more liberal religious movements caused by Enlightenment (human reason); began through revivalist camps; Timothy Dwight; Charles Finney popularized it on Western frontier; returned faith to people by warning about damnation & appealing to emotions * Mormons- Joseph Smith; Latter-Day Saints; forced to flee to Utah b/c everyone hated mormons b/c of their polygamy (marrying more than one person) * Reform- Began voluntary societies which would further push antebellum reform; temperance, education, improving treatment of mentally-ill, abolition, & equal rights for women * Transcendentalism- Ralph Emerson & Henry David Thoreau questioned doctrines of established churches & business practices of merchants;encouraged self-reliance & the power of the individual; Thoreau was basically the first to argue for non-violent protest (Civil Disobedience) by exposing unjust laws & not paying his taxes during Mex-Am war * Utopias- Escaping from society to create “perfect” world; Mormons, Shakers, Amana Colonies, & New Harmonies; all examples of religious communal movements * Reform- Wanted to replace old institutions w/ new ones through political action * Temperance- Stop drinking; pushed for by Protestants & argued w/ high crime rates & moral persuasion; German & Irish immigrants opposed but didn’t have much political power; politicians reformed some but it was overshadowed by slavery during Civil War & brought back later * Public Asylums- Dorothea Dix; pushed for new mental facilities to be created w/ better conditions; as well as prisons & schools for the blind & deaf (those two being pushed for most by Samuel Howe & Thomas Gallaudet) * Public Education- Nation needed to be better educated; Horace Mann pushed for public schools; wanted moral education as well & more colleges * Women’s Role- Became more important to society due to industrialization * Cult of Domesticity- Women who stayed at home now became moral leaders * Women’s Rights- Sarah & Angelina Grimke; Lucretia Mott & Elizabeth Stanton all pushed for women’s rights; important in Anti-slavery movement * Seneca Falls Convention (1848)- Declaration of Sentiments; organized by Stanton & Mott; pushed for equality & women’s suffrage * Anti-Slavery Movement * American Colonization Society- Appealed to moderate anti-slavery reformers; send slaves back to Africa; appealed to racists who wanted to free America of AAs * American Anti-Slavery Society- William Llyod Garrison; The Liberator -- his anti-slavery newspaper -- called for immediate abolition of slavery * AA Abolitionists- Frederick Douglass; advocated for direct action to end slavery & prejudice; inspireed Harriet Tubman, David Ruggles, Soujourner Truth, etc. * Violent Abolitionism- David Walker & Henry Garnet pushed for slavery revolts * Southern Reaction- Saw Northern reform as a threat to “Southern way of life”; weren’t reformers; reform was mostly in North & West Summary: During the Era of Good Feelings, the Jacksonian Era, and the remaining time before the Civil War, a great cultural shift into reform was seen, primarily in the North and West. Arguably starting with the Second Great Awakening, a religious movement to restore faith in Americans who had become disinterested with religion pushed for by Timothy Dwight and Charles Finney, beginning utopian projects by Mormons, Shakers, and other religious groups, this era of reform revolutionized how Americans thought. In large part due to Ralph Emerson and David Thoreau’s creation of Transcendentalism, Americans began to rely on themselves more, therefore beginning to push for reform, primarily to replace old institutions. Major reform movements included Temperance, aimed at prohibiting alcohol which was greatly opposed by the large amounts of new Irish and German immigrants, the pursuit for better treatment of the mentally-ill in asylums by Dorothea Dix, the push for public education led by Horace Mann, the push for women’s rights and suffrage seen best at the Seneca Falls Convention, organized by Elizabeth Stanton and Lucretia Mott, and the anti-slavery movement, having several different approaches; the American Colonization Society wanting gradual emancipation by ridding the US of African Americans by sending them back to Africa and the more radical approaches seen best in William Garrison’s newspaper -- The Liberator -- and African Americans abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass. However, despite many Americans joining the reform movement, it was primarily in the North and West, being seen as an obstruction to southern life in the South. ________________ Unit 5 (1830-1877) Chapter 12 (Westward Expansion) * Manifest Destiny- John O’Sullivan; God given duty for Americans to expand and spread civilization/democracy; what basically all expansion was based on * Reasons for Expansion- Manifest Destiny, economic opportunities, population increase, nationalism, tech improvements (railroads, canals, etc) * Texas- Owned by Mexico; MX forced all immigrants (many white settlers) to become Catholic & abolished slavery; Sam Houston revolted against Mexican Dictator Santa Anna; MX denied the peace treaty; Texas was (kinda) independent; asked for US to annex it; Jackson, Van Buren, & John Tyler (despite wanting to annex it) rejected it or couldn’t get it through Senate b/c expansion of slavery since Texas had slavery as an independent nation & pressure from Northern Whigs * Oregon- British owned; America wanted it since they already had many settlers there * Election of 1844- Dem; Van Buren: no annexation, John C. Calhoun: annexation; caused split in Dem party; nominated James K. Polk: pro-annexation, wanted all of Oregon, & wanted California; “Fifty-four Forty or Fight!” referring to expansionism vs Henry Clay; Polk won b/c of Southern & Western support * Mexican American War * Causes- Polk wanted Cali & said the border of Texas w/ Mexico was at the Rio Grande River (TX was not part of MX); MX said it was at Nueces River (Texas was part of MX); Whigs opposed war * Military Campaigns- First major was fought on foreign territory; General Stephen Kearny drove in to Cali; Zachary Taylor drove Mexican Army out of Texas * Results- US Victory * Treaty of Guadalupe (1848)- MX recognized Rio River as border & Mexican Cession -- gave US California & New Mexico for $15 mil * Opposition- Whigs feared it would mean the expansion of slavery; some Southern Dems didn’t like it b/c they wanted all of Mexico * Wilmot Proviso- David Wilmot; made plan for there not to be slavery in newly acquired territory; didn’t pass; set precedent for compromise to be used over slavery * Expansion * Ostend Manifesto- Tried to get Cuba from Spain b/c of plantation possibilities there; didn’t work * Gadsden Purchase- President Franklin Pierce bought tiny piece of land in NM & AZ to build railroad * Settlement- Skipped Great Plains & went straight Oregon & California; largely a middle-class movement * Gold Rush (1848-1850s)- Discovery of gold in CA caused massives amount of emigration to CA; also caused large Chinese immigration to West Coast * Economic Expansion * Tech- Telegraph (Samuel F.B. Morse) & railroad made communication & transportation easier; helped connect the nation & helped Western agriculture * Kanagawa Treaty- Commodore Perry; opened trade w/ isolationist Japan * Panic of 1857- Hurt Midwestern farmers & Northerners; didn’t affect South much; increased sectionalism & made them believe their econ was superior Summary: In large part due to John O'sullivan's Manifest Destiny, Americans believed it was their God given duty to expand out westward and spread civilization. This ultimately would lead to attempts to expand into now-Mexican territory, best seen in the opinion of James Polk and “54-40 or Fight!” campaign and other Southern and Western Democrats, and be heavily opposed by Northern Whigs, who feared the expansion of slavery. This would then go on to spark the Mexican-American War, fought over Mexican territories: Texas, which was disputed, but Texas claimed to be independent, and California. Won due to generals such as Zachary Taylor, the Mexican-American War ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe, giving America the Mexican Cession -- New Mexico and California, being the first major wave of expansion. However, expansion began issues over slavery, and its expansion into these new territories. This would cause David Wilmot to propose the Wilmot Proviso, saying none of new territories would allow for slavery and setting a precedent for peaceful methods to deal with the expansion of slavery, but it did not get through Congress. Expansion would continue with the Ostend Manifesto, showing the United States’ interest in acquiring Cuba for economic reasons and the Gadsden Purchase, which would allow a railroad to be built. New technology such as the railroad and the telegraph also aided the expansion, connecting the West and East Coast. This would also facilitate the large move to the West Coast during the Gold Rush, which also attracted a prominent wave of Chinese immigrants. Trade was also opened with Japan in the Kanagawa Treaty, allowing for even more economic opportunities. However, this would all end with the Panic of 1857, which hurt Mid-western farmers and Northern industrialists the most, leading the South to believe it had the superior economy, increasing sectionalism. Chapter 13 (Union in Peril) * Free Soil Movement- Were against the expansion of slavery, not slavery, b/c they wanted economic opporutinities for white men; mostly Northerners (also included some abolitionists); South saw it as a threat to their constitutional right to property * Popular Sovereignty- Lewis Cass; allowing states to vote on whether or not it would have slavery; supported by moderate Whigs & moderate Democrats * Election of 1848- Zachary Taylor (Whig- no position on slavery) vs Lewis Cass (Dem- popular sovereignty) vs Van Buren (Free soil); Zachary Taylor won * Compromise of 1850- California wanted to be admitted as a free state; “fire eaters” Southern slave owners, radical Democrats considered seceding; Henry Clay made compromise: California be admitted as a free state, Mexican Cession would be divided into Utah & New Mexico w/ popular sovereignty, ban slave trade in DC, fugitive slave law- Slaves who had escaped could be kidnapped & brought back into slavery; adopted by Millard Fillmore after the death of Taylor w/ Stephen Douglas’ help * Fugitive Slave Law- Heavily supported by South; got them to pass Comp of 1850; infuriated North & abolitionists * Underground Railroad- Harriet Tubman; helped slaves escape to North; aided later by Frederick Douglas & Sojourner Truth * Books * Uncle Tom’s Cabin- Harriet Beecher Stowe; exposed horrible truths of slavery & influenced millions of Northerners to support abolitionism; South deemed it “untruthful” * Impending Crisis of the South- Southerner Hinton Helper used statistics to prove slavery was harming South’s economy; banned in South & used heavily in North * Southern Reaction- Argued slavery was allowed by Bible & argued slavery was beneficial for both slaves & owners; argued wage workers in North were slaves in worse conditions - “wage slaves” * Election of 1852- Winfield Scott (Whig- no position on slavery; internal improvements) vs Franklin Pierce (Dem- Northerner but supported fugitive slave law); Pierce won * Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)- Senator of Illinois Stephen Douglas wanted to build a railroad & needed Southern support; came to compromise; split Kansas & Nebraska into two & have popular sovereignty; both were above 36,30 line established in the Missouri Compromise (1820) * Bleeding Kansas- Pro-slavery farmers & abolitionists (Free Soil Party used New England Emigrant Aid Company to transport people) rushed into Kansas to vote; got violent; John Brown--fierce abolitionist--; first major time violence was used over issue of slavery * Lecompton vs Topeka- Lecompton was pro-slavery legislature in Kansas; Topeka was anti-slavery legislature in Kansas * Sumner-Brooks Incident- Preston Brooks- proslavery - beat Charles Sumner - anti-slavery - w/ a cane in Congress; increased tensions between North & South * New Parties- Whig Party was weakened by conflicts; Northern & Southern Democrats for a short period * Know-Nothing Party- Nativist party; against Catholics & Irish/German immigration; helped weaken Whig party w/ minor support * Republican Party- Wisconsin (1854); Free-soilers & antislavery Whigs; opposed spread of slavery- not necesarily abolition; called for repeal of Kansas-Nebraska Act & Fugitive Slave Law * Election of 1856- Rep- John Fremont (no expansion of slavery, homesteads, & protective tarrifs) vs Dem- James Buchanan; Buchanan won but Reps also did very well; established Reps as a major National party * Constitutional Issues * Lecompton Constitution- Kansas settlers (mostly Reps) opposed Lecompton legislature; Kansas entered as a free state * Dred Scott v Sandford (1857)- Dred Scott sued b/c he had fled to a free state; believed it made him free; Southern Dem Roger Taney (SCOTUS Chief Justice) ruled: African Americans were not citizens (Scott could not sue), Congress could not take away slavery b/c it was personal property nor prohibit the expansion of slavery, & Missouri Comp was uncostitutional; enraged Republicans, deligthed Southern Democrats; major cause of sectional tension * John Brown’s Raid- Harpers Ferry; John Brown tried to lead a slave revolt; moderate Reps condemned his actions; South saw it as more proof the North wanted to destroy the South * Election of 1860- Southern Dem- John Breckinridge (unrestricted exentsion of slavery & annexation of Cuba) Northern Dem- Stephen Douglas (Popular Soveirgnety) vs Constiutional Union Party- John Bell (Know-Nothings & moderate Dems- preserve Union & use Constitution) vs Rep- Abraham Lincoln (Maintain the Union, protective tarrifs for Northern industriaists, free homesteads for Western farmers); Lincoln won; South had threatened to seceede if he won * Secession- South Carolina, GA, FL, AL, Miss, Louis, TX all secede first; rest of the southern states seceded; created Confederate States; like US but restricted President’s power on tariffs & slavery; elected Jefferson Davis * Crittenden Compromise- Buchanan’s last attempt to preserve Union; extension of slavery under 36,30 line; Reps rejected it b/c they wanted no extension of slavery, South rejected it b/c they had already seceeded. Summary: Beginning this period of conflict over the expansion of slavery was a proposed solution by Democrat Lewis Cass; popular sovereignty, which would allow the residents of territories appyling for admission as states to choose whether or not they wanted slavery. This would make up Cass’ campaign during the Election of 1848 between Cass, the Whig nominee Zachary Taylor, who ended up winning, and the Van Buren with Free Soil Party, a new party formed pushing for no expansion of slavery as they wanted economic opportunities for white settlers. Considering the Gold Rush and the massive amounts of land obtained in the Mexican Cession, it was inevitable states would be created, creating dispute. When California tried to enter the nation as a free state, conflicts began over what status it would take considering it was over and under the 36,30 line established in the Compromise of 1820. This would lead Henry Clay to creating the Compromise of 1850, in which California would be taken in as a free state and the slave trade would be banned in DC, to please Northerners, the Mexican Cession would be split into New Mexico and Utah and would then use popular sovereignty to decide whether or not they would have slavery, and the fugitive slave law, both to please Southerners. However, this ultimately created more conflict. Paired with the recent release of Uncle Tom’s Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe exposing the cruelty of slavery to millions of Northerners, increasing the support for abolitionism, the Fugitive Slave Law, which allowed escaping slaves to be kidnapped and returned to slavery, creating massive amounts of fury in Northerners, tensions only rose. Under President Pierce, the Kansas-Nebraska Act passed for Stephen Douglas to build a railroad, leaving both Kansas and Nebraska to decide for slavery through popular sovereignty. However, in Kansas, things got violent when both pro slavery, at Lecompton, and anti slavery, at Topeka, groups crammed in to vote on the issue, causing the violence during Bleeding Kansas. Paired with Summer-Brooks incident in which a violent fight broke out in Congress due to arguments over slavery, a shift in solutions was seen over the issue of slavery, from peaceful compromise to violence. This issue would also create new parties; mainly the Know-Nothing Party, a purely nativist group which heavily opposed Catholic immigrants of Germany and Ireland, and the Republican party, a sort of successor to the failing Whig party, wanting no expansion of slavery, protective tariffs, and the repeal of the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Fugitive Slave Law, being established as a national party in the election of 1856, where they lost but still got a large amount of votes. However, tensions would continue to worsen dramatically with the Dred Scott decision, under Roger Taney, ruling that African Americans were not citizens, the Compromise of 1820 was unconstitutional, and that Congress could not decide on the expansion of slavery; this would enrage Northerners. However, Southerners would be enraged next over the raid at Harpers Ferry, conducted by John Brown, an abolitionist who also fought during Bleeding Kansas, making Southerners firm in their belief that the North’s true intentions were to destroy the South. This would ultimately all lead to Southern Secession and the creation of the Confederate States in retaliation to the election of Republican Abraham Lincoln. Chapter 14 (Civil War) * Lincoln’s Goals Before War- To keep Union together; assured southerners he would not interfere w/ slavery; South still seceeded * Fort Sumter- First shots of Civil War; Lincoln tried to send supplies to it despite it being in Confederacy; Lincoln sent troops, authorized war spending, & suspended writ of habeas corpus all w/o Congressional approval * Border States- MD, Delaware, Missouri, KY; were allowed to have slaves but part of Union; strategic spots; DC, Missouri river, etc. * Northern Advantages- Larger population, more railroads & farmland, had US Navy, more economically stable, had industry to manufacture arms, established gov * Southern Advantages- Better generals, fighting a defensive war (less troop mobilization required), difficult coastline to blockade, fighting for something they believed in, King Cotton (foreign support from Britain due to reliance on Cotton; didn’t really work); had a shit economy and a horrible political structure though * Major Battles * Battle of Bull Run- Confederate victory; broke illusion that war would be short & promoted the idea that Confederates were invincible; followed by more Confederate victories b/c of poor management by General McClellan * Union Strategy- Anaconda Plan; Winfield Scott; block Southern ports, take control of Miss River, conquer Richmond * Antietam- Bloodiest battle of CW; Conf Robert Lee tried to invade Maryland; McClellan intercepted and pushed them back out to VA; McClellan didn’t pursue Lee so he got fired; draw but “Union Victory” b/c Confederacy failed to get foreign aid from Britain * Shiloh- Not important but I saw it for some practice tests for the Subject Test; happened after Antietam; Ulysses S. Grant won * Vicksburg- Union victory; Union now controlled all of Miss River; turning point of war * Gettysburg- Union victory; drove Confederates out of Penn in Union; destroyed Confederate offensive line; major turning point; basically confirmed Union victory * Sherman’s March- William Tecumseh Sherman; march from Atlanta to Savannah destroying everything; total war; destroyed farms, houses, anything that was a southern advantage * Foreign Affairs * Trent Affair- Britain almost sided w/ Confederacy; sent over diplomats James Mason & John Slidell on Trent; captured by Union ship & both were arrested; Britain threatened war; despite public criticism, Lincoln let them go * Failure of King Cotton- Ended by Trent Affair, Emancipation Proclamation which appealed to British, & Confederate defeats; Britain gave no aid * End of Slavery * Confiscation Acts- 1st Confiscation Act gave Unions soldiers power to free slaves if they helped w/ war; 2nd Confiscation Act freed any slaves of anyone engaged in rebellion; helped get freed slaves on Union’s side in war; Massachusetts 54th Regiment- all black soldiers * Emancipation Proclamation- After battle of Antietam; freed slaves in territories of rebellion; only Confederacy not border states; didn’t do much in reality since Union had no governing power in Confederacy; made war about slavery * 13th Amendment- Passed after Lincoln’s assisination; still pushed for it heavily; abolished slavery * End of War * Appomattox- Robert E. Lee surrendered ending the war in 1865 @ Appomattox Court House * Lincoln’s Assassination- Shot by John Wilkes Booth; Andrew Johnson became president * Effects of War * Political- Rep majority in Congress; peace Democrats were against war, limitation of civil liberties through the suspension of habeas corpus recognized in the case of Ex Parte Milligan (1866) * The Draft- First major draft; wealthy could pay for replacements; enraged poor laborers who feared their jobs could be replaced by AAs; riots in NY * Economic Change- Tariffs (Morrill Tariff Act), paper currency (Greenbacks), created unified baking network (first since National Bank in Jackson era) by Union to fund war. North’s econ boomed w/ further industrialization * Social Change- Women; took the important roles of men while they were away; opened nursing field to women; slight bit more independence & fueled suffragist movements later; end of slavery Summary: Following the secession of Southern States, except the Border States which were crucial to the North’s strategical position, creating the Confederate States, caused by the perceived threat of Republican Lincoln’s election, it was only inevitable war would begin, the first shots happening at Fort Sumter in 1861. Going into the war, both the Union and Confederacy had advantages and weaknesses alike (weaknesses usually being the opposite of the other’s advantage) mostly being the immense population, farming and railroad ownership, power of the US Navy, and a better manufacturing economy for the Union, while the Confederacy used their keen generals, their defensive position, their morale, and their potential foreign aid from King Cotton to their advantage, though suffering from a poor political structure and economy. Beginning the war, the Confederacy, despite their clear weaknesses, were actually making considerable victories at battles such as Bull Run and the draw at Antietam under General Robert Lee. However, once Union General Ulysses S. Grant took charge, the war leaned more in the Union’s favor, with markable victories at Vicksburg, Gettysburg, and Sherman’s March, employing Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan of constricting the Confederacy’s mobility by capturing the Mississippi River. During the war, however, Britain almost sided with the Confederacy due to their reliance on cotton, but after the Trent Affair in which British diplomats were captured as war prisoners by the Union, the British working class’ push against slavery in the Confederacy, and the recent Confederate losses, Britian opted out of aiding them. This would then lead to the Confiscation Acts, brought up when Unions soldiers refused to return slaves to their owners, allowing them instead to join the army, creating numerous black soldiers and the Massachusetts 54th Regiment which was all African American, the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in all rebelling territories; the Confederacy, and the 13th Amendment, formally abolishing slavery. Paired with the recent Union victories, it was quite obvious the Confederacy was going to have to surrender, doing so at Appomattox Court House in 1865. However, despite the war ending, its effects in the Union could clearly be seen. During the war, the first major drafts were created, the habeas corpus was suspended, the Morrill Tariff Act was imposed to fund the war, women had temporarily taken over for their man’s role, making them briefly far more important, and most importantly, slavery was abolished. Chapter 15 (Reconstruction) * Lincoln’s Plans- Believed Southern states had never constitutionally seceded; minimum test for political loyalty & readmission * Proclamation of Amnesty & Recon (1863)- Readmission; presidential pardon, oath of allegiance, & acceptance of emancipation of slavery; 10% of voters loyalty oath * Wade-Davis Bill (1864)- More demanding; 50% of voters loyalty oath; permitted only Non-Confederates to join back in Congress; Lincoln refused to sign the bill * Freedmen’s Bureau- Early welfare agency; provided food, shelter, medical care, & education for newly freed slaves * Andrew Johnson’s Plans- White supremacist; Southern Dem but only elected as Lincoln’s VP b/c Republicans wanted support from Northern Dems; a lot more sympathetic to the south; vetoed a lot of Congressional bills * Readmission Policy- 10% voter loyalty, disenfranchisement (Confeds can’t hold office or vote unless they are pardoned by the Pres (Johnson did so frequently) * Southern Govs- All came back into Union w/o slavery & accepting the 13th Amen * Black Codes- Southern state laws which limited the rights of AAs; e.j. prohibited AAs from taking loans for land, prohibited AAs from suing whites, forced them into labor contracts on farms (sharecropping) * Congressional Reconstruction- Republican Congress took charge over Johnson * Radical Republicans- Championed Recon for Civil Rights while moderates wanted Recon for econ benefits for whites; Radicals included Charles Sumner & Benjamin Wade; wanted equal rights for all americans * Civil Rights Act of 1866- Gave full citizenship to AAs; went against Dred Scott Decision; Reps feared it could be overturned by Dems if they won control again * 14th Amen- Gave all Americans citizenship regardless of race & required states to ensure legal protection of all races * Election of 1866 (Congressional Election)- Only applied to Congress; Republicans accused Dems & Southerners of being traitors; “waving the bloody shirt” -- Republican propaganda of CW tragedies to worsen South’s reputation -- got Rep 2/3rds majority in Congress; more Recon power * Recon Acts of 1867- Split south into 5 military zones, sent Northern troops to south, & made it so re-admitting states had to ratify 14th Amen & give the right to vote to all men regardless of race * Impeachment of Johnson- Congress passed Tenure of Office Act to keep radical republicans in office; Johnson thought it was unconstitutional and fired Secretary of War Edwin Stanton; Congress tried for impeachment; one vote off from removal * Grant Reform * Election of 1868- Rep; Ulysses S. Grant vs Dem; Horatio Seymour; Grant won * 15th Amendment- Reps needed freedmen's vote; passed 15th Amen in 1869 to secure AAs vote and all other races * Civil Rights Act of 1875- Last CR Acts of Congress during Recon; gave equal access to public services & allowed for AAs to be on jury poorly enforced; Reps began to lose hope in Recon * “Scalawags” & “Carpetbaggers”- Dem names for others; “Scalawags”; Republican Southerners, “Carpetbaggers”; Northern newcomers to South * Republican Legislature in South- Republicans dominated Southern ex-Confederate states * Successes- Universal male suffrage, women’s property rights, debt, relief, internal improvements; Welfare-ish Reform * Failures- Corruption, seen as wasteful & expensive * African Americans- Built AA communities; AA ministers in Negro Baptist & African American Episcopal churches; Black Colleges began to appear (Howard, Atlanta, Fisk, Morehouse, etc.) * Sharecropping-AAs would rent land from white plantation owners; forced to share usually ½ of crops; left AAs in “slavery” b/c of heavy debt cycles & contracts; “new form of servitude” * North during Recon * Corruption- Republicans became more interested w/ pro-business & industrial policies than Recon or Civil Rights; worsened Grant’s image but he still got re-elected * Credit Mobilier- Railroad companies gave Congressmen stocks to be given permits to build * Whiskey Ring- Gov conspired w/ whiskey companies to avoid taxes * Panic of 1873- Caused by overspeculation; typical panic results (debt, unemployment, etc.); farmers & laborers demanded an influx in money; Grant sided w/ bankers & vetoed a bill allowing additional greenbacks to be released * End of Reconstruction * Rise of Redeemers- Southern dems; states’ rights, reduced taxes, reduced spending on social programs, white supremacy; brought back Southern politics * KKK- Nathaniel Bedford Forrest; terrorist group which harassed & intimidated AAs; Congress passed Force Acts in 1870 & ‘71; didn’t do much * Amnesty Act of 1872- Northern “apology”; gave ex-Confeds power back; Dems began to gain power again in South * Election of 1876- Rep; Rutherford B Hayes vs Dem; Samuel Tilden; dispute came up & Southerners threatened to send election to House of Representatives which they controlled * Compromise of 1877- Hayes became president; Hayes would have to remove federal troops from South & allow a Southern transcontinental railroad; basically ended Recon Summary: During and following the Civil War, Lincoln began to make plans to reconstruct and readmit the Southern states, proposing the Proclamation of Amnesty, allowing Southern states to be readmitted if they pardoned themselves, made an oath of allegiance, accepted the emancipation of slavery and 13th Amendment, and had 10% of their voters pledge a loyalty oath. Other solutions such as the Wade-Davis bill, demanding 50% of voters to be loyal and prohibiting ex-Confederate leaders from running for office, which Lincoln refused, established a prominent group; Radical Republicans wanting equal rights for all Americans, especially African Americans. During this period shortly after the war, Lincoln created the Freedmen’s Bureau, an essential, welfare agency which aided recently freed African Americans with education, shelter, food, and medical care. However, due to Lincoln’s assasination, Andrew Johnson, his VP, a Southern Democrat, and one who was very sympathetic to the South, became president, finally setting a readmission policy, requiring 10% of voters to pledge loyalty and disenfranchisement, prohibiting ex-Confederates from voting and holding office, which could be negated by an action Johnson used frequently, presidential pardons. However, despite the efforts of Radical Republicans to eliminate the restriction of African American rights in the South, Black Codes were set into place, prohibiting the rights of African Americans extensively in a series of state laws, in the same vein as the Jim Crow Laws of the 1900s. These efforts by Radical and Moderate Republicans, who now dominated Congress after the election of 1866 off of a campaign of anti-South propaganda, were seen in the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and 1875, paired with the 14th and 15th Amendment, respectively, and the Republican domination in Southern politics after the Reconstruction Acts of 1867, splitting the South into five military districts, sending Northern troops to enforce the new laws. After the impeachment of Johnson and his unpopularity among Republicans, Ulysses S. Grant was elected. In the South, the legislature was dominated by “Scalawags”, Republican Southerners, and “Carpetbaggers” Northern newcomers who came to the South for political or economic reasons. However, despite the aformentioned efforts, many African Americans were still bound to “slavery” , in the form of the sharecropping system, effectively binding African American tenants to labor through a large amount of their crop being given to the landlord and never-ending debt cycles. At the same time in the North, during Reconstruction and the Grant Administration, corruption in the government was rampant, best seen at the Credit Mobilier and Whiskey Ring incidents, and, paired with the Panic of 1873, Republicans were beginning to lose interest in Reconstruction, primarily due to difficulties in enforcement, how expensive it was, and the coming rise of redeemers, Southern Democrats who gained popular support and would go to replace Republicans in Southern state governments, and the KKK, who terrorized freedmen and were often not put down despite the Force Acts. After the disputed election of 1876 lead to the Compromise of 1877, allowing Republican Rutherford B Hayes to be president instead of Democrat Samuel Tilden if he removed Northern troops from the south, the era of Reconstruction came to an end. ________________ Unit 6 (Late 1800s-Early 1900s) Chapter 16 (2nd Westward Migration) * Protective Tariffs * Set tariffs on imported goods * Benefitted North; increased domestic goods production and sales * Harmed South; Exported to Europe a lot, tariffs hurt their economy * Foreign Relations- William Seward urged for global assertion of U.S. power * Treaty of Kanagawa- Allow for U.S. ships to trade w/ Japan in hopes to assert power through economic pressure * William Seward’s Icebox- Seward urged for purchase of Alaska, “Icebox” * Burgilame Treaty- Guaranteed rights U.S. missionaries in China, set regulations for Chinese Immigration (Before Exclusion Act) * Railroads- Facilitated communication, domestic economy, travel, and connected nation * Railroad Companies could easily get $ through gov charters * Munn v Illinois- Ruled states could regulate railroads for “common good”. Used 14th Amen. to protect industry from over-regulation * Gold Standard- Replaced Bimetallism system- using silver & gold- to only use gold like the rest of the world as value of $ * “Crime of 1873” (Coinage Act)- Enforced Gold Standard, rendering silver useless; angered miners and commoners since silver production and mining was especially high at the moment. This means that many who were going to pay debts and loans in silver could not now because silver money lost its value * Homestead Act- Gave any applicant 160 acres of land out in interior West to develop it as long as they farmed on it for 5 years for cheap. Many Southerners moved in hopes of a better life, since Reconstruction brought many to poverty. * Morrill Act- Gave federal money to fund colleges out West. * Long Drive- Movement of cowboys who herded cattle along railroads. * Exodusts- African Americans under Homestead Act moving out West to escape White Supremacy in South (KKK and other anti-black sentiments ) * Life in the West- Though many farmers were optimistic, life sucked. Natural disasters; tornadoes, dry land, unpredictable weather. Land grants were quite small, no irrigation systems had been developed, etc. * Yellowstone & Natural Parks- Land set aside for beauty & leisure & conservation. One of the first national parks created in the U.S. * Native American Wars * Sand Creek Massacre- Against Cheyenne; Native victory under Chivington * Fetterman Massacre- Against Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, & Arapaho; Native victory * Battle of Littlebighorn- Against Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne; Native victory. Also known as Custer’s last stand. * Wounded Knee Massacre- Against Lakota Sioux; American victory, Last major Native battle; response to: * Ghost Dance Movement- spiritual dances to kick Whites out of Americas * Lone Wolf v Hitchcock- Congress could make decisions regardless of previous treaties w/ Natives * Basically; a lot of battles between Natives & Americans were fought. Gov didn’t intervene much other than try to introduce peace treaties. * Dawes Severalty Act- Forced Natives on reserves in hopes to assimilate them. * Frederick Jackson Turner- Wrote Frontier Thesis; American Democracy & Culture is based off conquest; conquest good. As long as there were more land, the U.S. would continue to expand. Summary: America began to expand its international power through Seward, the Alaskan Purchase, and the Burlingame Treaty and the Treaty of Kanagawa by William Perry . America also began to develop the Interior West/Great Plains, which had been skipped out on during the initial expansion, through the Homestead & Morrill Act. Obviously, since Natives lived on the land, violent conflicts arose, with little government intervention as not many would side with Natives anyways. What they ended up doing was implementing the Dawes Severalty Act, forcing Natives on reserves, trying to assimilate them into society, with varying success. Chapter 17 (Business Boomin’ Time) * Vertical Integration- When a company managed all parts of production; Meat company owning the cows, the fields they grazed, the slaughterhouses, etc. Used by Swift. * Horizontal Integration- When a company bought out competition by drastically lowering their prices. This made consumers go for that company, bringing competition out of business and bought out by initial company. Used by industry leaders like Rockefeller. Created conglomerates; monopolies. * Trusts- When multiple companies worked as one in investing, Usually bad b/c they created monopolies. * Shift in management- Split important tasks up; e.g. one leader for finances, one leader for marketing, one leader for manufacturing, etc. * Skilled vs Unskilled Workers- Skilled workers were craftsmen who dedicated their work to creating something in whole. Unskilled work didn’t require thinking, just doing one specific action repeatedly; e.g. putting a screw into something. With an industry expanding, unskilled workers replaced skilled workers b/c they were cheaper, more abundant, and required less care. * Scientific Management- Rewarding workers who worked faster with higher pays, workers would listen to their bosses entirely without question. Robotic workers. Didn’t catch on b/c of stubborn workers and Labor Unions. * Immigration- Old immigrants came from English speaking countries like Ireland, some Germans, usually protestant. New Immigrants came from Eastern Europe: Italy, Poland, Russia, and other small Eastern European Countries; usually peasants escaping poverty or religious persecution (Jews). Didn’t speak English. Jewish & Catholic. Heavily discriminated against. “Birds of Passage”, 1/3 returned home after making enough $. Chinese also came due to Burlingame Treaty & gold, etc. * Chinese Exclusion Act- Banned all Chinese immigration, along with denying Japanese & citizenship. Paper sons were people who forged papers to get in. * Great Railroad Strike- Thousands of laborers protested wage cuts. Opened American eyes to labor unions and strikes. * Henry George & Poverty and Progress- Warned Americans of optimism towards industry. Argued Industrial power meant poverty. Made Americans start to doubt big business and industry and just how beneficial it was. * Greenback Labor Party- Pushed for better work and railroad regulations. Wanted to increase the flow of money in order to aid borrowers of loans, which would foster economic growth. E.g. Farmers would be able to pay back their loans, allowing them to put more money towards farming. * Producerism- Dismissed wealthy business owners as living off the labor of others. * Granger Laws- Imposed many regulations on railroads, not really enforced, but started reform movements. * Knights of Labor- Wanted to build universal brotherhood between workers. Allowed anyone to join except Chinese. No child labor, no trusts, no strikes (wanted gov intervention) Didn’t work much as the gov consistently sided w/ business. Wanted public ownership of railroads & telegraphs. * Haymarket Protest- Violent protest, led to a backlash of labor unions, especially Knights. “If workers didn’t go on strike there wouldn’t be any violence.” * Farmers Alliance- Group of farmers, shared Greenback & Granger ideas, fought for farmers rights. Farmers weren’t winning over industry. * Hatch Act- Provided federal funding for agricultural research & education; win for Farmers Alliance * Interstate Commerce Act- Went against Wabash v Illinois- no gov. regulation of railroad- by creating ICC; regulated interstate shipping & railroads. Good for farmers expect it wasn’t really enforced. * Closed Shop- needed to be part of a Union to be employed b/c craft workers wanted to keep lower-wage workers out of unions; as it would strengthen their Unions. * AFl (American Federation of Labor)- Led by Samuel Gompers. Craft unions, wanted better wages, better working conditions, “bread & butter” essentials (8 hour work day, etc.). Negotiated w/ employers directly since Gov didn’t care about workers. * Tactics against Labor Unions- * Lockout (closure) * Blacklists (list of “troublemakers”, people who were part of Unions) * Yellow dog contracts (loyalty contracts; workers promised not to join Unions) * State militias * Court injunctions (Prevented workers from going on strike) * Homestead Strike & Pullman Strike- Violent strikes...basically. More examples of strikes b/c of how dissatisfied workers were. Summary: Industry began to boom in the North, and increased in the South and West. Industry leaders such as Rockefeller, Swift, Carnegie, Duke, Vanderbilt, etc. used tactics such as horizontal & vertical integration (owning all parts of production/ buying competition) and trusts to build giant monopolies. Railroads greatly aided the rise of industry as they allowed for faster transport. Obviously, with an industrial boom came national wealth, which attracted many poor Eastern European Catholic and Jewish peasants and Chinese, resulting in large amounts of immigration. These immigrants were usually discriminated against and were basically forced to work in low-wage jobs, using unskilled, tedious labor or oppressed by the Chinese Exclusion Act and the racism which followed it. This led to many wage-workers being unsatisfied with their poor wages, working conditions, and protection. Labor Unions such as the Knights of Labor (gov negotiation) and AFL (employer negotiation) emerged, along with Granger Laws, the Greenback Labor Party, and Farmers Alliance, seeking regulation of railroads. Unsatisfied workers went on strike, leading to violence, and the laissez-faire government siding with businesses, such as the Great Railroad Strike, Homestead Strike, Haymarket Bombing, and Pullman Strike. While sometimes regulations and laws such as the Interstate Commerce & Hatch Act, these were barely enforced. In the end, strikes were stopped by companies themselves using different tactics, like blacklists, loyalty contracts, or political intervention like court injunctions and militias. Chapter 18- (Victorian Era) * Consumer Culture- Modernization & industrialization encouraged the wealthy to spend their money. Shopping for the sake of shopping became a thing. * Plessy v Ferguson- Homer Plessy sued b/c he was forced to sit in the “black” car of the train even though he was only 1/8th black. Court ruled that the 14th Amendment was not violated b/c African Americans were “separate but equal” * Jim Crow Laws- Allowed for racial segregation under “separate but equal”. Used for schools, restaurants, trains, etc. * YMCA- Helped to assimilate young men and immigrants to urban life through different services. “Muscular Christianity.” * Negro Leagues- Baseball teams entirely made up of African Americans as they couldn’t join white leagues. * Sierra Club- Founded by John Muir- wanted time preserve American mountains * National Park Service- Set aside land for national parks. * Antiques Act- allowed president to set land apart for monuments w/o asking Congress * National Audobon Society- Environmentalists who wanted to preserve land for endangered animals. * “Solitude of Self” - Women’s suffragette Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s argument that rejected the claim that women did not equal rights because they were under the protection of man * Captured one of the conundrums of industrialization: labor brought both freedom and risk, working-class women very vulnerable to detrimental effects of industrialization. * Comstock Act (1873) - Made circulation of info about sex and birth control illegal. * Act made in response to parents’ fear that that young people were receiving sexual content through the mail and about the newfound rising of pornography. * Booker T. Washington - * Educational Project in South: Tuskegee Institute. * Vouched for “Industrial” education. * Atlanta Compromise: Speech made by Booker T. Washington to present the gradual racial progress in the South- Whites were very fond, interpreting it to be an approval of segregation. * Leading voice of African Americans. * Had the ideal that economic success, hard work, and education would disintegrate white prejudice and oppression. * Education- Colleges started to become accessible as new ones sprung up due to the Morrill Act and wealthy Philanthropists * Liberal Arts- New courses and degrees were offered; economics, poli sci, English, Astronomy etc. * WCTU- Women’s group with the motive “Do Everything”. Fought for women’s vote, temperance under “home protection”, safer streets, poverty, unemployement, child labor, & other industrial problems. (Nothing about race nor immigration) Led by Frances Willard. * National Association of Colored Women- Challenged Southern education; making the Confederacy look like it was good. Group was made up of colored women and aided orphans, elderly, advocated for temperance, and public health. * NAWSA- Women’s suffrage movement; reunited after Reconstruction. * Anti-Suffragists- Argued giving women the vote was too expensive and would undermine women’s power as reformers (now they would be competing against all other male voters) * Feminism- Full political, social, and economic rights for all women; opened Heterodoxy Club; strongly opposed Orthodox ideas. * Social Darwinism- Based on Natural Selection; poor were poor b/c they didn’t work as hard. Rich were rich b/c they worked hard. * Eugenics- Argued mentally disabled people shouldn’t be able to reproduce; wanted to create a “perfect” race. * Artistic Movements- Modernism and Naturalism; challenged traditional ways of art * American Protective Association- Founded by Protestants; fought against Catholics and Jews, deeming themselves to have the “knowledge of God” and their duty was to “bestow their knowledge upon” other religions. Nativist movement. * Social Gospel- Protestant movement which saw it as their duty to help those in need; welfare system b/c God gave them the willpower to do so. * APP vs Social Gospel * APP was a Protestant group that saw themselves as higher, so they needed to educate those “below” them; basically; Protestants that thought other religions were bad. * Social Gospel was much the same, but b/c God made them higher beings, it was their job to help the poor. * Fundamentalism- Only cared about heavenly redemption; focused on “fundamental” bible. Summary: With a boom in industry, the wealthy saw themselves much wealthier than before. This led to consumer culture and a new focus on “beautifying cities” and just making life more enjoyable for themselves. Many went to sports, while others went to national parks; through preservation by the Sierra Club or National Park Service. Though the rich whites had leisure, the same could not be said about African Americans, who suffered from the segregation presented through the Jim Crow Laws, Plessy v. Ferguson or Negro Leagues; and Women, who led many reforms. Women created and led the WTCU, National Association of Colored Women, and NAWSA, striving reform in women’s suffrage, child labor, temperance/prohibition, feminism, work conditions, etc. (Passed Comstock Act- prohibited sexual material) Women were no longer members to the side, rather fully fighting for their rights in industrial times. African American leader Booker T. Washington argued that for African Americans to assimilate and become as powerful as the White man, they needed to get an “industrial education”, contradicting the many new liberal arts schools and courses which had opened. Americans began to think more freely, inviting new artistic movements, like Naturalism and Modernism. This free thinking also allowed for the oppressive American Protective Association, which deemed non-Protestants as lower beings, but also the Social Gospel, which used this Protestant “heavenly” power to aid those in need. Wealthy people also started to develop ideas in Eugenics, creation of a “perfect race” and Social Darwinism, stating poor people were poor due to laziness. Chapter 19- (Gilded Age Politics) * Politics- Forgettable, Laissez Faire Social Darwinistic presidents * “Waving the Bloody Shirt”- (Republicans avenging fallen northern soldiers in Civil War- Blamed CW on Southern Democrats) * Big Northern cities were practically controlled by municipal political machines (e.g Boss Tweed) * Solid South- Complete domination of White Democrats in South * Williams v Mississippi- Allowed for poll taxes & literacy tests to vote; used to suppress black voters power. Used later by both Reps & Dems to suppress voting power of Populists; many farmers couldn’t read or afford the poll taxes. * Republican Party- Relied heavily on Patronage/Spoils System * Stalwarts- Supported political machines* & spoils system * Half-breeds- Wanted merit system & civil service reform * Mugwumps- On the fence; many switched to supporting Demo party under Grover Cleveland * “Half-Breed” Garfield joined forces w/ “Stalwart” Arthur to defeat Democrats * Garfield only appoints “Half-breeds” (Against merit system) * Gets h*cking shot by some guy who was salty about not getting a position and here’s an awesome video about him (Team Karim approved) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MGVraepNj04 *Political Machines- Municipal bureaucracies devoted to having complete local political power. Relied on patronage, making it heavily corrupt. Political Machines would garner support of immigrants by providing public services, aiding immigrants to adapt to urban life through housing, medical aid, etc. * Pendleton Act- Gets passed in response to the event listed above; spoils system gets replaced by a merit system; gov. workers need qualifications to be appointed. * Causes both Reps & Dems to look towards the wealthy for funding; spoils system doesn’t exist; no funding from people who want jobs * Election of 1884- “Half-breed” Republican Blaine vs Cleveland (Democrat)- Cleveland Wins w/ Mugwump support * Money- Farmers want more money in circulation (Chapter 17). “Silverities”, want more silver money to be produced b/c silver is cheaper, meaning more silver money could be produced. (This happens before the Coinage Act. Chapters are in a weird order) * Groups; Granger Movement, Farmers Alliance, Greenback Party, Patrons of Husbandry * Congress obviously sides w/ “gold bugs” (bankers) and creditors * Coinage Act of 1873- Already noted; US switches to only gold; farmers & miners get mad. * Then, Bland- Allison Act & Sherman Silver Purchase Act (1878/1890) forced the U.S. treasury to put silver $ back into circulation. Re-introduced Bimetallism for a bit. * Tariffs- High tariffs during the Civil War to protect & fund the Union. Post-war,Dems contest tariffs; so do farmers who lose international markets. * Populism- Gave common people & farmers a voice through Ohama Platform. Wanted: * Political Reforms * Direct popular election of Senators (became 17th Amen.{Happened during Progressive Era}) * Wisconsin Plan- Initiatives (issue on ballot for voters to decide), Referendums (way for voters to vote on an issue), Recalls (kick someone out of office w/ votes). Established by LaFollete * Economic Reforms * Unlimited production of silver @ 16 gold: 1 silver (Doesn’t happen) * Gradual Income Tax (16th Amen. {Happened during Progressive Era}) * Public ownership of railroad & telegraph (like Knights of Labor) * Low interest loans for farmers (eventually becomes Federal Farm Loan Act {Happened during Progressive Era}) * 8 Hour work day (garnered industrial support) * Panic of 1893- Stock market crashes b/c why not? Railroads go bankrupt. Farms close b/c no railroads. 20% unemployment rates * Coxey’s Army- Jobless march; unemployed people gather up and march in D.C. demanding the government give them jobs. Doesn’t really work. * End of Bimetallism- Silver prices plummets b/c economy does what it wants or something. Cleveland reveals Sherman Silver Purchase Act, ending Bimetallism, and borrows $65 million from J.P. Morgan, essentially stopping Panic of 1893. Summary: Gilded Age Politics were a mess of a system, soon to be replaced by the Progressive Era. The federal government found itself rarely intervening with much, being laissez-faire, rather, municipal political machines found the most power, being able to almost completely control their respective urban cities. Republicans found themselves somewhat split on the issue of the Spoils/Patronage system, “Stalwarts” in support of these, “Half-Breeds” wanting a merit system and civil service reform, and “Mugwumps” finding themselves in an awkward middle, many switching to the Democratic Party during Cleveland's campaign and presidency. After the assasination of Garfield, the Pendleton Act was introduced, forcing a merit system, making politicians rely on wealthy individuals for campaign funding. During this time, tariffs introduced during the Civil War were still being used, upsetting many farmers, as tariffs hurt their business. Farmers eventually united under the Populist Party/Omaha Platform pushing for silver money to be reintroduced and more money in general being in circulation, a gradual income tax (became 16th Amen.), public ownership of railroads & telegraph lines, low interest loans for farmers, 8 hour workdays to garner industrial workers’ support, direct election of senators (became 17th Amen.), and the Wisconsin Plan, initivaties, referendums, and recalls to give voters more power. Bimetallism is also re-introduced during this time period through the Bland-Allison Act and Sherman Silver Purchase Act, though will soon be taken away. In 1893, the stock market crashes, railroads go bankrupt, farms close due to there being no railroads to transport their goods, and a shoot in unemployment rates. The government fixes this by repealing the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, ending bimetallism which had been failing anyways, and borrowing $65 million from J.P. Morgan. Chapter 20- (Progressive Era) * Progressivism- Variety of movements pushing for reform and a more “hands-on” government. African Americans were excluded; Progressivism didn’t do much for them. Dominated by middle class; both Republicans & Democrats. Done by Gov instead of individuals. * Muckrakers- People who fought political & economic corruption through literature & journalistic exposure. * Lincoln Steffens: Municipal Corruption; Ida Tarbell:Business Corruption; Theodore Dreiser: Economic Corruption; Frank Norris: Industrial Corruption * Upton Sinclair- Wrote The Jungle, exposing meat manufacturers for horrible food sanitary conditions; no one wearing gloves nor masks, etc. Got Roosevelt to inspect Chicago Slaughter Houses. * Pure Food & Drug Act/ Meat Inspection Act- Established FDA to regulate food manufacturing; helped consumers. * Square Deal- Established by Teddy Roosevelt; equal shot in society; mostly used for compromise between business & workers during conflicts; Gilded Age Politics only sided w/ business. * Interstate Commerce Act was actually enforced, but didn’t fully support Civil Rights for African Americans * Labor regulations * Muller v Oregon- Set 10 hour work day maxes for Women in Oregon. Went against Lochner v Ny which determined that under 14th Amen. the court could not regulate work conditions that had been signed under contract, like work hours. * Busted “bad trusts” under Sherman Antitrust Act- “bad trusts” were ones that hurt competition, the consumer, trade, etc. * Anthracite Coal Mine- Workers in coal mines went on strike; Roosevelt intervened as people needed coal for warming their houses during the approaching winter. Asked for representatives of both sides to come to the White House for compromise; Coal Mine rejected; Roosevelt threatened to take it over; they accepted; TR forced workers back to work. * Key example of how Roosevelt used Presidential power to create compromise between labor unions & businesses; siding with no particular side. (These are also economic reforms in some sense) * Political Reforms- Some Populist ideas came back though the party was basically non-existent at this point; fell apart after nominating Democratic William Bryan in 1896. * Direct Election of Senators (17th Amendment) * Graduated Income Tax- Rich are taxed more than poor (16th Amendment) * Initiatives, recalls, & referendums all start being used * Australian Secret Ballot- Private votes * Direct Primary Election of Senators; voters get to decide party candidate * All take power away from political machines and give it to the people * More Economic Reforms (Farmers)- Farmers, after losing for so long, finally get some aid. Roosevelt strengthen ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission) * Elkins Act- Makes rebates, discounts for when an entity, commonly a business, used a certain railroad company a lot; encouraged companies to stick with one railroad company, illegal. This means lowers prices for farmers as, before, the money left over from discounted price for rebates went to farmers. Lowers prices for Farmers. * Hepburn Act- ICC gets max railroad rates; sets a max price for what users can be charged (???). Lowers prices for farmers. * Environment- Teddy Roosevelt loved the outdoors, nature, camping, and was an avid hunter. * Conservation- Can still use the land; National Parks * Preservation- Can’t use the land * Establishes the Department of Forestry under the leadership of Gifford Pinchot to protect land for national parks & sanctuaries. * William Taft- Roosevelt's “successor”; passed aforementioned 16th Amen. * Payne-Aldrich Tariff- Elevates TR’s tariff rates. * Bureau of Mines- Pinchot (environment guy appointed by TR) & Ballinger (mining/architecture company) disagree on land that was supposed to be preserved. Pinchot opens land for Ballinger to use. * Pisses TR off b/c Pinchot was the environmental guy and now he allowed a mining company to use this land. TR runs again under Progressive (Bull Moose) party. * Woodrow Wilson- Wins election of TR & Taft. Democrat but Progressive. * Progressive Income Tax- (16th Amendment) * Clayton Antitrust Act- Labor Unions do not count as trusts; cannot be decided whether good or bad under Sherman Antitrust Act; gives power to Unions * Federal Reserve Act- Created 12 banking districts which could put $ into circulation; first central banking system since 1836 * FTC- Federal Trade Commission; investigated companies and could file cease and assists; helped consumers. * Federal Farm Loan Act- Cheaper loans for farmers; helps them out obviously. Populist idea. * Child Labor Act- Banned child labor; controversial b/c some families needed their children to work for $ * Civil Rights- Two major leaders. (Obviously still happened during Progressive Era but African Americans didn’t see much federal help) * Booker T. Washington- Gradualism; educate African Americans with “industrial smarts” so they can gain economic power then Civil Rights * WEB DuBois- Immediate civil rights; economics will come after. * Soul of Blackfolk * Niagara Movement & NAACP- Supported Civil Rights * Feminism/Suffrage/Women just wanting to be part of society * Two major leaders replacing Susan B & Elizabeth Cady Stanton * Carrie Chapman Catt- Gradualism; NAWSA * Alice Paul: National Women’s Party; much more aggressive; protests, etc. * 19th Amendment- Gave all, regardless of gender, the right to vote. Summary: The period following the Gilded Age, being the Progressive Era, was a sharp contrast to previous period. Whereas before, during the Gilded Age, the government was laissez-faire and didn’t do much in terms of reform, the new Progressive government was one of the first movements the government actually took part in. This era was defined by three, very important Presidents; Teddy Roosevelt, who basically started the era; William Taft, who was still important, but not as much as the presidents before and after him; and Woodrow Wilson. During this time, various groups, except African Americans, saw improvements, some small, some major, to their lives through reform. Beginning, White consumers and laborers were some of the most supported people of this era. Through protections like the Food Inspection Act, the creation of the FDA (which can be attributed to the Muckraker Upton Sinclair), and the creation of the FTC, consumers saw many improvements to their lives. Laborers saw reforms such as the introduction of a mandatory 10 hour work day for women through Muller v Oregon, the implementation of the Square Deal, “trust busting” through the Sherman Antitrust Act, the protection of labor unions under the Clayton Antitrust Act, and the Child Labor Act, though this one was disputed. Farmers were also a group who heavily benefitted from the Progressive Era through the Elkins Act and Hepburn Act which lowered the costs of railroads for farmers, strengthening the ICC and enforcing the Interstate Commerce Act, and the Federal Reserve Act giving out cheap loans. Women saw improvements through the passage of the 18th Amendment and 19th Amendment, prohibition and women’s suffrage respectively, though their movement was split in two by Carrie Chapman Catt, a gradualist leading the NAWSA, and Alice Paul, a much more radical, aggressive leader, backed by her National Women’s Party. The same could be said about African Americans. Though they saw even less improvements through the Progressive Era, being left out of many reforms. Their movement was also split in two by Booker T. Washington, a gradualist supporting “industrial education”, and WEB DuBois, supporting liberal education and civil rights first, but also had the Niagara Movement and NAACP to support both of their causes. Other reforms generally improved the voters and people or general balance of powers, using many Populist ideas after their party crumbled; 16th Amen. (Graduated/Progressive Income Tax), 17th Amen. (Direct election of Senators), the Australian Secret Ballot, Direct Primary Elections, Initiatives, Referendums, Recalls, the Federal Reserve Act (first central banking system since 1836), and the Payne Aldrich-Tariff. Finally, Roosevelt pushed for the creation of the Department of Forestry and sanucatries out of his love of nature. Overall, though the Progressive Era only really helped middle class,Protestant,white Americans, its legacy and effects today cannot be understated. APUSH Unit 7 Study Guide (Late 1890s-1945) Chapter 21 (Imperialism) * Josiah Strong Our Country- Book which established; * American Exceptionalism- Anglo-Saxon Americans were destined to spread democracy; white man’s burden- non-whites need the help of whites b/c they “aren't civilized”. * Arguments for Imperialism- Mostly by Reps (TR, Taft); no land left in America; needed resources & raw materials due to a surplus in agriculture & industrial production; racialized Social Darwinism (thing above basically), Naval power; The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, America was behind; Europe had a bunch of colonies. * Arguments Against Imperialism- Mostly by Dems; other domestic problems to tackle; Women’s rights, no US foreign intervention or involvement, non-whites didn’t need white man’s “help”. * War of 1898 (Spanish American War) * Causes: Cuba tried to get its independence causing conflicts which harmed American trade & plantations, needed cheap labor, reasons listed above too, Cuba was lucrative & US wanted some of that, yellow journalism fueled war by publishing stories of the butcher Weyler (Hearst vs Pulitzer), Jingoism (strong, military nationalism); Dupuy DeLome Letter- made fun of McKinley; America got triggered, “Remember the Maine”- US framed Spain for sinking USS Maine; most likely just a technical failure in reality. * Teller Amendment- US would not take control of Cuba if they won war * Insular Cases- Ruled that citizenship did not extend to those in captured territories; Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines; meant captured territories weren’t states nor colonies; “US didn’t colonize”. * Platt Amendment- Stopped Cuba from making treaties w/ anyone but US & gave US right to their foreign affairs; took more control of Cuba. * Results of War- First major American involvement in foreign affairs, Peace treaty w/ Spain, Cuba & Philippines were disputed lands; revolts for independence which US stopped but didn’t annex territories. * Hawaii- US got treaties w/ Queen of Hawaii; gave US sugar access in trade w/o tariffs and Hawaii could not make treaties w/ anyone else. Queen revolted against treaties; US overthrew monarchy through Annexation Club & Marines. Forced annexation of Hawaii; now had land in Pacific * Imperialism in China & Japan- Europe already traded a lot w/ Asia; US wanted that. “Open Door”- John Hay pushed for equal trade access for all nations in China. 2nd Principle; China must stay its own entity; no colonization. Japan won against Russia in something; gained US respect (probably not important) * Root- Takahira Agreement- Free commerce; allowed for Japanese control of part of Northern China (?) * US & Latin America- Following SpanAmer War, US wanted control for naval power; canals; Hay-Pauncefote Treaty gave America disputed land in Panama & Colombia for Panama Canal * Roosevelt Corollary- Addition to Monroe Doctrine; allowed US to get into Carribean foreign affairs. * Big Stick Diplomacy- The policy held by Teddy Roosevelt in foreign affairs. The "big stick" symbolizes his power and readiness to use military force if necessary. It is a way of intimidating countries without actually harming them; it was the Navy for America. * Wilson & Mexico- America could patrol not only Carribean but Mexico b/c force & Roosevelt Corollary. As a dem, Wilson stated US wouldn’t colonize anymore. In Mexico, Diaz was overthrown by Madero who was friendly to US; Madero got killed; America intervened to leave Mexico in their best interests; Pancho got involved. Basically, US wasn’t supposed to colonize so they “patrolled” Mexico & changed stuff to fit their interests. * WWI- Triple Alliance (Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy; enemies) vs. Triple Entente (Britain, France, & Russia) * Main Causes of WW1: * M: militarism; ppl got bored & started making big boi weapons * A: alliances formed; see above * N: nationalism; everyone just decided their country was the best; Jingoism * I: imperialism; Big Stick Diplomacy; Europe boosts its power. * A: assassination; Arch-duke Ferdinand gets killed; starts war * Neutral-ish- Idea was; if US stays out they can assert power over destroyed, post-war Europe. Progressives & Socialists along w/ Carnegie & Ford (probably to keep their working force strong). Britain blocked American trade w/ enemies; forced US to only trade w/ allies; strengthened their economies; forced US into somewhat of an alliance bias as American banks also only invested in allies; would hurt American economy if France & England lost. Although, America was claiming they were “neutral” American sympathies were with GB and France. JP Morgan extended over $3 billion to Britain. * Causes for American Involvement- Not very neutral ^. * Lusitania- British commercial ship (had passengers; some American) was sunk by German submarine. But ehhh b/c the ship actually had arms so the Germans were just trying to stop the arms from being shipped. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare- fuck it we can do anything w/ submarines. Enraged Americans; yellow journalism fueled this. * Zimmerman Telegram- German telegram intercepted by US telling Mexico it would help them get land back from US (AZ, NM, etc.) Used to try to distract US from European War by creating a war between US & Mexico. America gets mad; blames Germany for like everything. * US gets in war- Germany is “hurting US trade” through unrestricted submarines warfare; declares war * National Defense Act- Increases size of army & money for warships, “in case US gets attacked” (passes before US involvement; preparation) * Russia also bails out b/c of their own revolution; Germany can focus more on France & Britain now; allies need more support * Opposition- West & midwest; Populists, Progressives, Socialists, William Jennings Bryan, Jane Addams, Jeannette Rankin, Women’s Suffrage * War on the Homefront * Role of Gov- Gov tried to take power through industry & US banks. Does stuff: * War Industries Board- Directed military production; forced factories to put their efforts towards war production, set standard prices & procedures; Bernard Baruch * National War Labor Bond- established 8-hour workday w/ overtime bonuses & equal pay for women, supported women to create peaceful labor movements to reduce strikes; Taft * Food Administration- Encouraged Americans to eat less to conserve food Stuff like Meatless Mondays and Wheatless Wednesdays; Herbert Hoover * Fuel Administration- Encouraged Americans to conserve fuel, some factories were closed, daylight savings to conserve energy; Harry Garfield * Finance Board- Encouraged Americans to purchase war bonds, increased taxes, both income & corporate. * Committee on Public Information- Propaganda committee run by George Creel; promoted ideas from the other agencies seen above. “Protect the Hun” anti-german propaganda, believed Germans were spies. * 4 Minute Men- Volunteers who gave powerful propaganda speeches in public to convince Americans. * Sedition Act- Prohibited words & behavior that “incite, provoke, or encourage resistance to US & supports enemies.” * Schneck v US- arrested socialist for handing out pamphlets that were deemed “dangerous”; upheld Espionage Act * Abrams v US- ruled authorities could prosecute speech that was thought to be “dangerous” * Both enforced Sedition Act * Great Migration- African Americans moved to cities, St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, NY) b/c of influx in jobs (white men were out to war) & to escape oppressive South, but were only welcomed by discrimination in North. Mexican Americans & Puerto Ricans also moved up North from Southwest. Women also became heavily involved in working industrial jobs. * Women’s Suffrage- Woodrow Wilson, impressed by NAWSA’s patriotism (Carrie Chapman Catt) & scared of National Women’s Party (Alice Paul) aggressive nature, changed his mind & pushed for women’s rights as a “war effort”. Got 19th Amendment & set a precedent for other nations to give women the vote. * Peace * 14 Points- Wilson called for open diplomacy, open trade, arms reduction, nationalism in Austro-Hungary; peace and reduction of possibility of further war * League of Nations- Wilson wanted to create it to “end all wars”; independence & territorial integrity for all. * Treaty of Versailles- Ended WWI, being particularly rough on Germany. Republican Congress rejected the treaty & league afraid of foreign involvement & prevention of US seeking free foreign policy. Both never got ratified. * Extras: “Reservationists” – Republicans Led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge wanted amendments to the League of Nations before joining.Wilson still wanted it; went on tour to promote it; had a fucking stroke Summary: All the while the US was building up its own domestic economy and dealing with domestic issues, it was also cracking out of its isolationist shell instilled way back by George Washington, involving itself more in foreign affairs. This first truly showed in the Spanish American War, where America asserted imperialist power on Latin America & the Philippines, while annexing Hawaii, through the Teller and Platt Amendments in Cuba, while also adding the Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine, allowing the US to get into foreign affairs of the Carribean and Big Stick Diplomacy, marking the US’ naval power as a source of power to threaten countries into abiding. Many were with imperialism, mostly Republicans, arguing it was necessary for land and resource expansion, to“civilize” the “uncivilized” people of the Caribbean and Philippines, otherwise known as the white man’s burden, all the while yellow journalism pressed for war, but just as many were against it, being mostly Democrats and women, who argued there were bigger issues to deal with in America or going back to Washington’s ideas of political isolation. With great interest in foreign affairs and already being a relatively strong, stable country, it was no doubt the United States would get involved in WW1. Despite the strong arguments against joining the War, many of which were the same seen in the Spanish American War in addition to the fear that the wide diversity of people in America would be affected through the war as there were many Germans and Italians in America yet those were the enemies, the United States eventually joined the war. At first, the United States, under the presidency of Democrat Woodrow Wilson, desired to stay neutral, not tangling with the European issues. However, after the unrestricted submarine warfare of Germany and the interception of the Zimmerman telegram, an attempt from Germans to distract America with internal war, and the essentially forced American investments into Britain and France, the United States joined the war. While men were at war, a great migration of African Americans and Mexican Americans, including Puerto Ricans,into cities occured to fill out the vacant jobs, many of which were forced in war production due to the multitude of government agencies set in place to dedicate to war effort. Women’s suffragists also finally got the right to vote through the 19th Amendment due to efforts from the NAWSA and National Women’s Party. Ending the 1st World War was the Treaty of Versailles. Though Wilson pushed for it, along with his own Fourteen Points and League of Nations, which America would not join, in hopes to end all wars, the Republican dominated Congress rejected both the Treaty of Versailles, never ratifying it, and the League of Nations, fearing it would force the United States into a certain foreign policy while also generally opposing it due to not wanting to intervene with foreign politics, seeing the horrors that came of it, in the Spanish American War and WW1. Chapter 22 (The Roaring 20’s) * Legacy of WWI * Causes of Racial Tensions- Increase in white violence due to more power for African Americans; war efforts, Great Migration, economic clout meaning job competition for whites. * Labor Unions- Labor unions grew in size due to Democratic gov & National War Labor Board (NWLB) became racist; job competition from non-whites. * Adkins v Children's Hospital- ruled against federal legislation for regulating child labor, voided women of minimum wage in DC; went against Muller v Oregon, and generally an example of the resurging laissez-faire gov * Welfare Capitalism- Eventually replaced Labor Unions; system of labor relations that stressed employee’s wellbeing; Henry Ford $5 a day. Others gave benefits like healthcare & athletic facilities to encourage loyalty. * Red Scare- Nativist movement; scared of communists, facists, and anarchists; created FBI under Eugene Palmer; “Palmer raids' ' arrested people who were thought to be dangerous. * ERA- After WWI, women gained more gov power b/c of their wartime efforts * Sheppard-Towner Maternity & Infantry Act- provided federal funds for medical clinics & parental education programs to reduce infant mortality rates * ERA- Equal Rights Amendment; pushed for by Alice Paul; critics argued it would endanger women b/c women protection acts in workplace; finally passed in 70s * Women's International League for Peace and Freedom- damn why’s that so long. Jane Addams; women fought for diplomatic peace; against imperialism, stressed human suffering caused by militarism, & proposed social measures for peace * Teapot Dome Scandal- Gov secretly leasing oil resources to private companies & taking bribes due to Laissez-Faire gov. Progressive Era reforms slowed down to a halt w/ gov becoming less interested, Taft being head of SCOTUS; didn’t do no trust bustin’, didn’t care about conglomerates nor the FTC. * Dollar Diplomacy- the use of a country's financial power to extend its international influence; Coined by Samuel Inman; denounced military intervention and threats (Big Stick Diplomacy) and loan guarantees. Economic efforts to further foreign policy and control through bank loans. NWL & other critics argued dollar diplomacy allowed for the infringement of soverignty and rape. Bank loans failed; $ only went to elites. * Cultural Conflict * Prohibition- 18th Amen. Goal of Protestant Nativists & women for good health, morals, & Christian values. Speakeasies- places to drink illegally. In CA, people went across to Mexico for alcohol. Repealed in 1933 b/c of protests and gov didn’t really care enough + more money in taxes * ACLU & Scopes Trial- In South, Fundamentalists fought against reaching darwinism suing schools who did. ACLU- protected free speech rights during Red Scare & intervened at Scopes Trial in defense of a bio teacher who taught evolution. William Jennings Bryan was prosecutor and court sided w/ him b/c it was in the law (Butler Law). Showed how much religion still influenced American politics. * Nativism (again)- Protestants didn’t like non-Protestants, non-white immigrants * National Origins Act (1924)- Set quota on immigration for each country based on how much immigration from that place had occurred. Stopped many Western Europeans but allowed many Latinos to come in. In CA, Chinese & Japanese immigrants weren’t allowed to own property for a bit. * KKK- 1920’s brought a resurgence of KKK after Birth of a Nation; revolutionary film glorifying old KKK; brought them back together. Now targeted African Americans + Jews, Catholics, & Immigrants. * Results of Great Migration * Harlem Renaissance- African American cultural boom; art, literature, & jazz in Harlem, which was originally intended for whites but contractors got desperate to sell apartments. Claude McKay & Jean Toomer The New Negro revolutionized the Black race and how they would act, having more poli-socio-economic power. * Jazz- Swept across the nation; had Black & White listeners. Louis Armstrong, Ellington; boosted by radio & phonograph. Was one of the first pieces of African American culture to interest Whites; still segregated; “Cotton Clubs” for those who wanted to listen to jazz but not be around African Americans * Universal Negro Improvement Assocation- Marcus Gravey; urged African Americans to go back to Africa b/c there would never be equality for them in a white-run country; black seperatism; got 4 million folowers & left a legacy of activism in African Americans * Pan-Africanism- All blacks in the world were destined to cooperate in political action b/c: 1. Blacks fought in WWI 2. Pan-African Congress sought representation in Treaty of Versailles 3. Protests against US occupation of Haiti 4. Modern black literature & arts * Lost Generation- WWI survivors; John Dos Passos, Hemingway portrayed war’s dehumanizing effects in his books. Criticized modern American life; materialism, consumerism, Jazz, more acceptable sexuality. * Economic Problems After WWI- Right after war recession; inflation, unemployment 10%; fixed from 1922 to 1929. Big businesses began to merge w/ smaller ones to stop competition; Wall Street Bankers made NY economic capital; began to use other countries for plantations & factories (Asia, Latin America, Australia). Agriculture never really recovered from post-war recession. * More economics: Harding (rep president); reduction of income tax, increased tariffs through Fordney-McCumber Tarrif 1922, made Bureau of Budget to make all gov expenditures under one single budget for Congress to vote on. * Consumer Culture & Credit- Consumer culture fed into racist ideas; African Americans shouldn’t have nice things b/c those are only for the “civilized”. Consumer Credit allowed for poor families to borrow money to buy items; “buy now, pay later”; eventually led to Great Depression * Automobile- Americans owned ~80% of world’s cars; symbol of wealth & power, led to oil industries booming even harder, highway & street construction, suburban shopping centers; paid w/ credit. * Hollywood- By 1920’s; largest movie making company; Paramount, United Artists, etc by rich Eastern European Jews in Soho. Popularized Flappers- girls who challenged social norms by cutting their hair short, wearing short skirts, & smoking & drinking in public. Received criticism from gov and even women’s rights movements b/c they had “gone too far sexually” oh nooo calves, how scandalous * Great Depression- Too many loans & optimist investments w/ borrowed money led to Great Depression for 4 years; unemployment, poverty, halt of consumer culture; less $= less demand= less $; banks went bankrupt; middle & rich class stayed affluent but less wealthy; cities went bankrupt (Salt Lake City); people used for trading instead of $; people stopped having as much children; married women were banned from some jobs b/c money should go to “male breadwinners” but they still contributed greatly financially; voters wanted change bigger gov & welfare system; no more laissez-faire...again * Summary:Post WWI, the United States saw a huge cultural shift away from Victorian Progressivism and into the “Roaring 20’s”. Racial Tensions prevailed, as they always did, due to the Great Migration resulting in job competition for whites. This meant two things. Firstly, the KKK came back around and now also targeted non-protestants and immigrants. Secondly, a cultural boom was seen in Harlem, where African Americans proved their social and cultural importance through art, like Jazz; becoming essentially the first time Whites found themselves interested in Black culture. This, however, also sparked up the UNIA, under Marcus Garvey, who urged for African Americans to go back to Africa to escape the oppression of the White Americans and also become involved in politics after war efforts and protests. During the more laissez-faire government, proven in the lack of trust-busting under Taft-run SCOTUS, Adkins v Children’s Hospital and Teapot Dome Scandal, most protests and strikes were stopped by companies themselves introducing welfare systems to encourage loyalty in companies. Along with the 20’s cultural shift came a Red Scare, which created FBI to stop “spies”; communists, socialists, and anarchists after seeing what happened in Russia, and a resurgence of Nativism through the KKK and National Origins Act. In addition, Dollar Diplomacy essentially replaced Big Stick Diplomacy, the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) went into play, and the Scopes Trial solidified the power religion still had in the South. This shift also encouraged women to prove themselves powerful after the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting them the vote, with the push for political influence through the WILPF and the Equal Rights Amendment. During the 1920’s, the United States saw an immense economy, allowing for even somewhat poor families to buy cars, under consumer credit, of course, and watch Hollywood movies and afford radios to listen to Jazz and other radio channels. However, this surge in credit, loaning, and borrowing money eventually led to the Stock Market Crash of 1929 and the Great Depression, making Americans rethink the Laissez-Faire government which they had once pushed for, exiting the Progressive Era. Chapter 23- Great Depression * Causes- Wall Street Crash, too much borrowed money, too many speculative investments into the stock market, too optimistic about stock market, uneven distribution of income, excessive use of credit, overproduction of consumer goods, weak farming economy, Laissez-Faire (ish) gov, & global economic problems. * Effects- GPD drop, mass poverty, homelessness, high unemployment (25%!), banks failed, ended Republican domination of gov b/c people wanted more regulation again, African Americans felt even more difficulties, & migrating jobs began; people migrating to wherever there was work * Hoover’s Policies- didn’t do jack shit; thought it was gonna get better magically * Hawley-Smoot Tariff- One of highest American tariffs; 50%; Europe responded by placing more tariffs; hurt economy in long run * Debt Moratorium- Great Depression also affected Europe; war debt repayment (Dawes Plan) was halted b/c Europe couldn’t pay them back yet * Federal Farm Board- Made in 1929; only used after 1931; helped farmers stabilize prices by holding surplus grain & cotton in storage; too modest of a program; didn’t help much * Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)- 1932; propping up faltering railroads, banks, life insurance companies, & other financial institutions; Dems said it ultimately just went back to the wealthy, didn’t loan out enough and when it did, infrequently * Protests * Farmers- Midwest farmers made the Farm Holiday Association; tried to reverse drops in prices by stopping farming all together to increase demand; effort collapsed after violence. * Bonus March- WW1 veterans march to DC; demanded immediate payment of bonuses (bonus bill); Congress didn’t do so and drove them out w/ General Douglas MacArthur; made Hoover seem heartless. * Election of 1932- Democrats; FDR vs Republicans; Hoover. FDR won by landslide w/ new support of African Americans, farmers, and some Northerners. * 20th Amendment- Hoover was so bad he made an amendment to kick himself out of office quicker; “Lame Duck Amendment” shortened period between election of new pres & inauguration * Eleanor Roosevelt- First 1st lady to be influential and be a leader. * New Deal- Roosevelt offered vague promises during campaign but got around to doing stuff when pres. * Brain Trust- Roosevelt put a lot of diverse people in charge of New Deal; Jews, Women, & African Americans * First 100 Days- Democratic Congress created Alphabet agencies; WPA, AAA, CCC, NRA to combat depression * Fireside Chats- Roosevelt went on radio to announce banks had reopened w/ the money deposited exceeding the money withdrawn (people could get their money back) * Bank Holiday- FDR closed banks temporarily to prevent them from failing, sorted good and bad banks, FDIC formed to restore trust in banks by offering insurance of deposits up to $2,500 * Repeal of Prohibition- Repealing Prohibition would allow for a federal tax on alcohol and nobody cared about being sober anymore. * The Three R’s (Relief; for unemployed, Recovery; for failing businesses & economy, and Reform; of American economic institutions) * Relief- Emergency Banking Relief Act; authorized the gov to examine finances of bank during bank holiday to reopen properly, Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA); offered grants of federal money for soup kitchens & other relief facilities under Harry Hopkins, Public Works Administration (PWA); used state & local money to build projects and supply jobs under Harold Ickes, Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC); employed young men on projects on federal lands, Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA); experiment in regional development and public planning to develop poorest area, Tennessee Valley. * Recovery- HOLC (Home Owners Loan Corporation) provided refinancing for small houses, Farm Credit Administration provided low-interest farm loans, * Reform- Glass Steagall Act increased regulation of banks & limited consumer credit, FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) guaranteed individual bank deposits; many weren’t getting the money they put in back. * NRA- One of most important new agencies under Hugh Johnson. Attempted to guarantee reasonable profits for business & fair wages & hours. NRA worked directly w/ companies & passed a law allowing workers to organize & bargain collectively. Ruled unconstitutional in Schechter v U.S. (Relief/Reform) * AAA- NRA but for farmers; encourage farmers to reduce production, boosting prices, and gave gov subsidies for every acre they plowed less. Declared unconstitutional in Schechter v U.S. (Relief/Reform) * Other Programs- Roosevelt continued to convince Congress to make new agencies * Civil Works Administration- (CWA); added to PWA to create jobs by hiring laborers at federally funded construction sites. (Relief) * Securities & Exchange Commission- (SECs); created to regulate stock market and place limits on speculation while requiring financial disclosure by corporations to stop fraud. (Reform/Recovery) * Federal Housing Administration- (FHA); gave bank loans to make and recover houses. (Relief/Reform-ish) * Got rid of gold standard for a bit thanks * Second New Deal- b/c one wasn’t enough now was it. Concentrated more on two r’s: relief and reform * Relief Programs- Most made by Harry Hopkins * Work Progress Administration- (WPA); much bigger than 1st ND relief programs; WPA spent billions to supply jobs; double wages and hired a buttload of people. Made a bunch of roads, bridges, parks, etc. Not only looked for construction workers but artists, actors, writers, and photographers to advertise and decorate these sites. * NYA- National Youth Admin. to supply part-time jobs for high schoolers and college kids. * Resettlement Administration- (RA); under direction of Brain Trust; provided loans to sharecroppers, tenants, and small farmers; made federal camps where migrant workers could find good work. * Reform- Made industrial workers & farmers get more federal help over business * National Labor Relations (Wagner) Act- Made National Industrial Recovery Act unconstitutional; guaranteed a worker’s right to join union; outlawed unfair business practices; made National Labor Relations Board to enforce business law & ensure workers were being treated right * Rural Electrification Administration- Provided federal loans for electrical supply to rural areas * Federal Taxes- Revenue act increased tax on wealthy * SOCIAL SECURITY ACT- Created federal insurance program which was based on one’s salary to give them monthly payments after 65; payed retirement + other benefits; unemployment compensation, etc. Changed American’s gov ideas; Gov should take care of poor * Election of 1936- Roosevelt won b/c of popularity. Rep del was Landon; said gov was spending too much money but agreed w/ ND legislation. Dem party became white racists and nativists (Solid South), midwestern farmers, labor unions, & African Americans. * Opposition to New Deal- liberals, conservatives, & demagogues * Liberal Critics- Said ND was too much for business, not enough for unemployed, minorities, women, and elderly * Conservative Critics- Said ND gave too much power to gov; WPA & Wagner Act were “communisitic”; business leaders said 1. Too much regulation 2. ND’s pro-union stance was no bueno 3. Financing gov programs meant deficit - borrowing money * Anti-New Deal- Alfred Smith & John Davis (dems) became reps and joined it to stop the ND from “subverting” the US econ & poli system * Demagogues- Father Charles Coughlin, Dr. Francis Townsend, Huey Long; needed immediate solutions not long term ones. Used radio to reach mass audiences; evil conspiracies (Coughlin), more economic security of elderly (Dr. Townsend), redistribution of wealth (Huey Long) * Supreme Court- Supreme Court killed NRA & AAA * Court Reorganization Plan- Roosevelt proposed judicial-reorganization bill; allowed pres to appoint Supreme Court an additional justice for every justice who was older than 70.5 years to get his own supporters as judges; Reps & Dems were outraged and said no that’s too much power “Court-packing”. Even a majority of Dem senate didn’t support him. * Rise of Unions- Allowed for by National Industrial Recovery Act & Wagner Act * CIO- AFL (skilled workers) branched out to Committee of Industrial Organizations (CIO) under John Lewis; concentrated on unskilled workers in automobile, steel, & southern textile industry. * Strikes- General Motors strike; refused to work for right to join Union; gave in and let UAW (United Auto Workers) happen, US Steel Corp recognized CIO; small companies didn’t; got violent & led to almost all small steel companies allowing CIO * Fair Labor Standards Act- Last major ND reform; minimum wage, max standard workweek of 40 hours, child labor restrictions on under 16 (US v Darby Lumber CO) * Last Phase of the New Deal- New Deal lost momentum in late 1930s b/c of econ & poli reasons * Recession (37-38)- Caused by gov policy; Social Security tax reduced consumer spending & too much $ on public works. * Keynesian Economics- Deficit spending; helpful in difficult times b/c gov could spend above tax revenues & complicated economics. Basically, deficit spending allowed to gov to spend more than they were making; borrowing money to spend more on public works and reliefs to eventually get the econ stable & money back * Weakened ND- After “court-packing” fight; coalition of Reps & Dems wanted to limit ND; Nazi Germany also became a threat * Depression Life- we all know this one too well * Women- Women were accused from taking jobs from men even though men and women applied for different jobs; Eleanor Roosevelt pushed for women’s equalities; ND programs didn’t ensure equal pay * Dust Bowl Farmers- soil aint got no DRENK; farmers migrated westward b/c of dry soil in midwest; Soil Conservation Service was created to teach & subsidize the plain farmers new efficient techniques * African Americans- “Last hired, first fired” heavy discrimination; African American sharecroppers in South; KKK; extreme poverty; got worst part of Great Depression; ND did some improvements (WPA & CCC provided jobs, moral support from Mrs. Roosevelt, federal jobs under Roosevelt) * Natives- John Collier; commissioner of Bureau of Indian Affairs established conservation through CCC and Native involvement in WPA * Indian Reorganization Act- Repealed Dawes Act in 1934; returned native land to tribes * Mexican Americans- Discrimination in CA & SW; unemployement, drought, etc. Many returned to Mexico b/c of job competition. Summary- As the Great Depression started, in large part due to too much credit being given, a large wealth inequality, almost no business regulation, a weak agricultural economy, and economic problems globally, already elected President Hoover did little to help reduce the Depression’s effects and attempt to solve it, all attempts either ending up harming the US or not being effective enough. In the election of 1932, the voice of the American people was finally heard with the election of Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt, promising to bring the US out of economic failure with the “New Deal” In his first 100 days in office, FDR set in place a brain trust, comprised of diverse Americans from all corners of life (women, african americans, some immigrants, etc), using the radio to spread their ideas, closing banks temporarily, and repealing Prohibition. The New Deal came into place with three main ideas; relief for the unemployed, recovery for the failing economy and businesses, and reform to prevent further depression. During this period, the New Deal created hundreds of federal agencies tasked with resolving the depression. Though there were a wide array of agencies and services, the most notable ones include, but are certainly not limited to, the NRA, tasked with regulating workers rights and allowing them to organize and bargain, the AAA, encouraging farmers to produce less crop to drive prices up, and the WPA, creating public works projects and millions of jobs. During the New Deal, a push further forwards was seen, referred to by historians as the Second New Deal, which focused much more on relief and reform. Most notably, the Second New Deal strengthened the WPA, now hiring people to decorate and advertise these new projects, introduced the Wagner Act, allowing workers to form unions, and introduced the Social Security Act, revolutionizing how American saw the government’s role; now seeing it as the government’s job to take care of the poor. Though the New Deal was incredibly popular, forming the Democratic Party to include Solid South white supremacists, mid-western farmers, labor unions, and African Americans, it did not come without opposition. Opposition mostly came from extreme conservatives, arguing FDR had too much power, extreme liberals arguing it gave too much power to businesses, demagogues using the radio to preach their own reasons, and the Supreme Court killing the NRA and AAA. Even federal powers opposed FDR, especially during the time of his infamous “court-packing”, in which FDR attempted to fill the Supreme Court with like-minded individuals. During this time, Labor Unions also became prominent again, with the newly founded CIO based on unskilled workers, and finally being granted the Fair Labor Standards Act, setting standards for all American businesses. Like all things however, the New Deal eventually faded out of importance, with a small recession in the late 30s due to poor government policy management, the rise of Keynesian Economics, deficit spending, which were primarily used at the end of the New Deal, and the rising threat of the New Deal. In the end however, though the Great Depression affecting women, African Americans, Natives, Mexican-Americans, and Dustbowl Farmers particularly badly, the New Deal fixed some of these issues, with varying success, yet laid a strong foundation for American economics today. Chapter 24- (WWII) * Facism- Anti-democratic movement from 1920’s; spread b/c of “unfair” treatment of Germany in Treaty of Versailles and desire for expansionism abroad; Germany- Hitler, Japan- Hideki Tojo, Italy- Mussolini * Nye Committee- Committee to investigate arms during WWI; findings prompted Congress to be isolationist b/c they showed that US had only fought war to benefit bankers and the wealthiest, worsening the wealth gap. * Neutrality Acts of 1935- Embargo on selling arms to warring countries & warned Americans on ships. 1936; Congress banned loans to countries in conflict. 1937; “cash-and-carry”; if warring nation wanted to buy from the US it would need to do so in cash and use their own ships; Congress tried not to repeat mistakes of WWI * Arguments for Isolation & War- Isolation; mostly primarily conservatives & some liberals (Nation Legion of Mothers of America); no enthusiasm for war, listened to Taft and Aviator Charles Lindeberg, anti-communism, morality, even some anti-Semitism; made FDR cautious to intervene in European conflicts * Popular Front- Coalition of liberal anti-fascists. Many Americans joined; American Communist Party, Civil Rights Movements, Left-wing people. Dealt with international causes; e.g. Spanish Civil War. However, US, Britain, and France stayed neutral. * America 1st Committee- Gov was neutral; FDR wasn’t; allowed for allies to buy American arms. In response, AFC, lead Lindenberg & Senator Nye, held rallies, made posters, brochures, etc for isolationism. They were also nazi’s so no, these aren’t the good guys; popularized anti-Semitism in America * Early Attempts at Involvement- Like Wilson’s war “preparations”; FDR created National Defense Advisory Commission, added Republican Knox & Stimson to cabinet as Secretary of War, traded WWI arms w/ Britain * Election of 1940- Roosevelt vs Willkie; Roosevelt won for 3rd term b/c of crisis * “Four Freedoms”- Speech by FDR; stressed human freedoms- freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom of want. Defended Democratic Society ideals; like Wilson’s speech after WWI; outline liberal international order for US & European audiences. * Away From Neutrality- Lend-Lease Act; allowed for Britain or allies to rent arms; went to USSR after Germany invaded USSR (attempted). Atlantic Charter; drew from Wilson’s 14 Points & FDR’s Four Freedoms; called for economic cooperation, national self-determination, & political stability after war between allies. US Navy & German U-boats had some fights on Atlantic but FDR didn’t call for war”Shoot on Sight” & Greer Sinking. Pearl Harbor; US stopped trade w/ Japan b/c their invasions in Indochina; Japan bombed Pearl Harbor; calamity united US & Congress declared war. * Appeasement- Continuously allowing a country to do a small thing again and again until it stockpiles up and turns into something big. How Hitler, Italy, & Japan rose to power. * FDR Quarantine Speech- Wants to use economic power over isolationism; public disagrees; Congress ups war spending. * Latin America- FDR gets rid of Dollar Diplomacy b/c there’s no money left to invest. * Pan American Conference- FDR says US will never intervene in Latin America (pft yea okay), supposedly ends Roosevelt Corollary; nullifies Platt & Teller Amendment in Cuba. * War Powers Act- Gave FDR all control over war effort; imperial presidency- abuse of presidential power. * War on the Homefront * Economic- War efforts & defense mobilization ended Great Depression (not ND), Revenue Act of 1942; expanded # of people paying income tax; gave gov more $, Gov gave incentives (tax cut?) for companies to help w/ war effort; scarce raw materials (rubber, copper, oil), e.g. Ford making tanks instead of cars under War Production Board, * Military- Military production goes up a lot (okay cool we know), more than 50 million Americans, both men and women, of all races and economic classes enlist in the army; segregated for African Americans, very hard for Japanese American to enlist/be in high positions of power * “Code teller” Navajo Native Americans used native language to send codes so other countries couldn’t understand. * Drafts revealed Americans were in bad health and bad education; reforms pushed for improvements * Women * Military- Women enlist in Women’s Army Corps (WAC), WAVES (emergency program basically), some serve in Women’s Airforce (WASPs); women weren’t in charge though. * Domestic- “Rosie the Riveter '' encouraged women to join the workforce due to labor shortages. Many opportunities given, but dealt w/ discrimination & sexual harrasement as well as no childcare; when war ended women were pushed back into their homes. * African Americans * Double V Campaign- wartime Civil Rights; “American racists are like Nazis”; wanted more job; FDR passed Executive Order 8802 to stop Civil Rights leader Randolph’s march to DC; order “stopped” employment discrimination; established Fair Employement Practices Commission to regulate; unprecedented federal push for black rights; laid foundation for 60s Civil Rights Movements * Mexican Americans * Bracero Program- Gov exploited Mexicans into labor contracts in West to meet agricultural demands; set up Mexican-American civil rights in labor systems in 40’s, sleepy lagoon murder (jose diaz), zoot suit riots * Labor Unions- Became the loudest voice of US workers; no-strike pledge during war; FDR created NWLB; regulated work hours, wages, the usual; could seize manufacturing plants which didn’t comply; miners went on strike b/c of low wages; Congress passed Smith-Connally Labor Act which allowed president to prohibit strikes and forbade gov assistance to labor unions. * GI Bill- FDR wanted 2nd Bill of Rights; Servicemen’s Readjustment Act (GI Bill of Rights) provided education, job training, medical care, pensions, & mortgage loans for those who participated in war. * Wartime Migration- Americans moved to big cities and California b.c of job demands; loosened tradition & previous norms * Racial Conflicts- Conflicts rose from “2nd Great Migration” for African Americans in cities & West as well as Latinos b/c job, housing, and other forms of competition * Homosexuals- Wartime migration allowed for homosexual communities to booml social conventions opposes them but homosexuals generally stayed silent; military tried to screen them out w/ limited success; boom in homosexual communities in port cities. * “For the Duration”- Gov involved Americans w/ everything in the war as a temporary inconvenience through popular culture, rations, and shortened consumer goods; enabling the black market to grow. * Japanese Removal- Germans & Italians were left alone but after Pearl Harbor Western racism against Asian Americans, specifically Japanese began. Executive Order 9066 allowed for Japanese internment camps; relocation policy; upheld by Hirabayashi v US and Korematsu v US; “military necessity” * Fighting the War- US, USSR, Britain (France, China) vs Germany, Japan, & Italy * D-Day (from that point on, germany plays defense)- First major fight of WWII w/ American involvement; lots of soldiers died; Allies won (Americans under command of Eisenhower), started Ally victories which would lead to European Facism surrender (Italy & Germany) * Holocaust & St.Louis- Jews on St.Louis escaping Holocaust were denied entrance b/c of American anti-Semitism in state departments, churches, & the general public. Eventually, FDR created War Refugee Board and Henry Morgenthau aided Jews in entry * Battle of Midway- Japanese & American fights in Pacific; severely harmed Japanese Navy and they never really recovered; allowed for US to exert pressure through invasion of previously Japanese invaded Atlantic islands * Manhattan Project- After FDR’s sudden death, Truman became president and learned about the Manhattan Project; testing atomic bombs. All was kept hidden from Congress, Americans, & even Truman whilst he was VP. Truman ordered for atomic bombing on Hiroshima & Nagasaki to get Japan to surrender since they were stubborn; got Japan to surrender, effectively ending WWII * Costs of War- Killed a lot of people, destroyed European & Japanese infrastructure; hurt global economy, basically ended European imperialism; Britain was no longer a global power; America emerged basically undamaged and unresolved disputes between US & USSR led to Cold War. Summary- As the spread of facism in Germany, Italy, and Japan spread, clearly going against the League of Nations and Treaty of Versailles, but both of these and the US appeased facism and did little to stop it, the United States found itself in a sticky situation. Still recovering from the Great Depression, the American people found themselves uninterested in war and prefered to remain neutral. In fact, the United States was completely uninterested and heavily appeased facist states for their rapid, inhumane expansion, and slowly but surely left Latin America alone after the the Pan American Conference, promising that the US would never again intervene with Latin American affairs, which didn’t last long. This was best seen in the American First Committee, Nye Committee, and the Neutrality Acts of 1935 and the acts which succeeded it, in large placing an embargo on US trade with Europe. However, as the US became more sympathetic to its WWI allies, mostly Britain, through the creation of the “cash-and-carry” policy, leading to the Lend-Lease Act, the Atlantic Charter, the “Shoot on Sight” fights between Germany and America’s Navies and the sinking of the Greer, all of which culminating in the Japanese attacks on Pearl Harbor, America went from seeking isolationism to having a burning desire to go to war. Luckily, due to FDR’s peacetime draft and pre-war effort mobilization solving the Great Depression, America was in large part ready to fight. As men were sent off to war, an enormous amount of jobs opened up. This meant minorities’ living standards greatly improved, having even more urban migration. Wartime factories and other preparations were employing Women, African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Natives, among many other minorities. Overall, though discrimination still prevailed, this era proved to be a step in the right direction for the rights of minorities. Labor Unions also became extremely large during this era, leading to the passage of the GI Bill of Rights, setting many regulations which still exist today. Unfortunately, the same positive progression cannot be said for Asian Americans, specifically the Japanese. After the Pearl Harbor attacks, Americans became extremely racist and a mass-hysteria over fearing Japanese Americans began. This led to Executive Order 9066 allowing for Japanese labor/internment camps to be created all over the country, somewhat mimicking concentration camps in Germany which Americans hated so much, but conditions were a lot better and barely any deaths occurred. WWII itself proved a lot of things about American society and its ideals. Firstly, an era of anti-Semitism ushered through with many Jews escaping the Holocaust in Europe being denied entrance. Secondly, American politics had an immense capability for destruction, best seen in the Hiroshima and Nagaski bombings, using atomic bombs developed through the Manhattan Project. Finally, WWII left the US fairly untouched which would establish it as the global power, having one of the strongest economies, ushering in a great wave of nationalism, sparking small disagreements with the USSR which would eventually lead to the Cold War. ________________ Unit 8 (1945-1980) Chapter 25 (Cold War) * WWII Conferences- All led to rising tensions between US & USSR * Yalta- FDR focused on maintaining alliance w/USSR, Stalin would help w/ Japan (didn’t happen), free elections in Europe (didn’t happen), created: * United Nations- Sought to create world peace; Security Council; Big 5; US, USSR, China, GB, France; like League of Nations but US actually joined * Potsdam- Unconditional surrender of Japan; European war was done, Stalin continued to impose communism on East Euro; spread communism; US didn’t like that; differences in opinion built tension between US & GB and USSR * Containment- George F Kennan; communism expansion; 1. USSR pressured Turkey and Iran for materials & access to Med. Sea; 2. Civil War in Greece; strong communist party; 3. Post-war strength of communist party in Italy and France. US;keep communism in USSR until it inevitably collapses * Truman Doctrine- America’s responsibility to protect world from communism; helped Greece & Turkey resist communist uprising; expanded US foreign policy; big global power * Marshall Plan- Massive financial assistance program to reconstruct post-war Europe; decreased popularity of Western European communist parties; established US as a major economic world power; increased US & USSR tensions * NATO vs Warsaw Pact * NATO- First American peacetime alliance since Rev. War; Western Europe and US- GB, France, Italy, US, etc. (Germany eventually joins); made West/East Germany (West; US, East; USSR) * Warsaw Pact- Eastern Europe & USSR * Makes two sides; USSR & Eastern Europe under Warsaw, US & Western Europe under NATO; tensions rise * NSC-68- USSR now had nuclear weapons as well; tensions rose; Truman looked towards US National Security Council (NSC)l published the 68 program boldy condemning USSR & Communism, while calling for more Western defense; shifted CW from econ. pressure to military pressure; Truman didn’t like at first * China & Japan- Japan wanted US military protection to reconstruct. Chinese Revolution; US aided anti-communists; Communist victory; “Loss for US”; China joined USSR & Truman blocked China from UN; major expansion of communism * Korean War * Causes- USSR & US occupied North & South Korea, respectively, on the 38th parallel; USSR wanted NK to win; US wanted SK to win but neither US nor USSR wanted to fight until NK convinced Stalin; surprise attack on SK; Truman sent troops * Results- General Eisenhower replaced McArthur (Reps didn’t like); precedent for undeclared war (no congressional approval); refusal to use atomic weapons stopped that from happening in CW, got US involved in Asia; Cold War became global issue; Truman stopped refusing to up Western defense spending; made US military world power * Munich Analogy- Didn’t want to repeat same mistakes from appeasement w/ Hitler; strongly went against Stalin & Soviet influence; strengthened US strategic positions * Truman & Cold War Liberalism- Dems; kept some ND welfare, anti-communist, & fought “subversives”-- people w/ affiliations to communists -- at home; got support of many African Americans & Labor Unions * Taft-Hartley Act- Made by Reps in Congress response to massive strikes after WWII; replaced National Labor Relations Act (‘39); weakened rights of workers and unions; “contained” labor movement * Fair Deal- Truman domestic policy; national health care, education, housing programs, expansion of Social Security, new agricultural programs, and higher minimum wage. Reps blocked a lot of it b/c of Civil Rights aspects & CW paranoia; mimicked ND * Red Scare- Far bigger than first Red Scare * Cause- Paranoia over Soviet spies in gov after US & USSR stopped being buddies after WWII * Loyalty-Security Program- Executive Order 9835; allowed for permitted officials to investigate gov workers for espionage; allowed for racial and homophobic biases; labor unions did it a lot too to get rid of “subversives”; public institutions started it too; helped spread Red Scare * HUAC- House Un-American Activities Committee; helped spread Red Scare through own investigations; Nixon pursued case of former New Dealer Hiss; got Nixon to fame * Joseph McCarthy- Publicly accused gov workers of affiliations w/ communism; helped spread Red Scare; McCarthy-ism encouraged Americans to do the same; Truman & him didn’t get along but Truman couldn’t do anything about him * Eisenhower (IKE)- “Modern republicanism”; aimed at moderating ND more like FDR than Hoover; brought republican power back * Policies- Liked Marshall Plan & NATO, wanted to increase Social Security & minimum wage, not a civil rights leader * CW Era Politics- Dems & Reps agreed on basically everything; CW, demands of modern econ, welfare state; didn’t agree on Civil Rights (Reps didn’t want, Dems did) * “New Look”- Defense policy; reduce military mobilization by increasing production of long-range, intimidating weapons; started Arms Race * SEATO- SouthEast Asia Treaty Organization; allied with new, developing, ex-colonial countries to stop Soviet influence (Stalin died; now Khrushchev); same approach got Iranian & Iraqi support; supported developing govs no matter how repressive financially; stability over Democracy as long as anti-communist * CIA Involvement in FA- John Dulles used CIA to kill gov officials in foreign countries that were too “communist”. Coup in Iran & Guatemala. Eisenhower approved; expanded CIA’s role in foreign affairs * Vietnam Under IKE- New communist gov in VT trying to overthrow French under Ho Minh; asked for US support; overturned FDR’s self-determination approach and denied support b/c they were communist. US kept supporting France, keeping southern VT under American Gov (Diem) * Domino Theory- If communism prevailed in VT it would spread to all of surrounding area; extension of containment * Eisenhower & Middle East- Egyptians were going against Britain, France, thereby Israel, invasions. IKE uses UN GA to pressure Britain, France, & Israel to leave b/c he reasoned Egyptians would turn to Soviets for support; lost a potential ally, avoided war. * Eisenhower Doctrine- US would support Middle East against communism if need be; e.g. Lebanon, showed how global CW was * JFK- Young, charismatic Catholic (1st Cath pres); televised debates in the Election of 1960 help him get popular against Nixon (JFK was hotter than Nixon; literally the reason). JFK got support of Catholics, African Americans, laborers, and VP got support of some Southern Dems. Very close tie * New Frontier- JFK’s advisors; his brother and some other guy; encouraged Americans to be idealistic but kinda sucked at their jobs & got into trouble * Cuba (Under JFK)- Now under Castro- US didn’t want them to go to Soviets * Bay of Pigs- CIA tried to overthrow Castro; got defeated; CIA pleaded for air strikes; JFK said no and took the L; increased tensions between Cuba, US, & USSR * Cuban Missile Crisis- USSR put ballistic missile bases in Cuba pointed at US. To avoid nuclear war; JFK & Khrushchev negotiated to remove US bases in Turkey & USSR bases in Cuba and US wouldn’t invade Cuba; almost prompted Nuclear War; closest they got to war & showed US/USSR negotiations could be done * Peace Corps- Low cost public service to aid developing countries; showed alternatives to communism for the poor; basically was used to Americanize the world and stop communism * JFK & Vietnam- JFK stayed committed to Vietnam; upped US aid to S. VT; had to support repressive Diem regime to stop spread of communism. Summary: Nearing and after the end of the 2nd World War, the death of FDR leaving Truman in charge, and the multiple conferences between the US, USSR, and Great Britain creating the UN and leaving the US and USSR in tensions, the Cold War would begin. At the beginning, President Truman rushed to recover Europe and not let Communism spread, otherwise known as containment, through the Truman Doctrine, declaring that it was the US’ job to protect the world from communism, establishing it as a global superpower, the Marshall Plan, greatly aiding a recovering West Germany and other countries, and the NATO Pact, countered by the Warsaw Pact, causing sides to be established very quickly. Despite the Cold War starting as an economic war, it slowly turned to a militaristic one with the decision of the US National Security Council to call for defense on the Western front. This would lead to the Munich Analogy, being that the US, UN, and NATO Europe were keen to not appease Stalin as they had appeased Hitler, previously. However, the Cold War did not just occur in the US & Europe, as it soon spread to Asia with the Korean War and the Communist Chinese Revolution, establishing the Cold War as a global issue. On the homefront, however, Truman implemented his Fair Deal, which, much like the New Deal aided Americans through healthcare, the expansion of Social Security, educational reforms, and many others, which, much like the New Deal, were put down by a Republican dominated Congress. A second Red Scare also occurred in the US, pushed by the Truman-hated Joseph McCarthy and his denunciations of communist affiliations in the government workplace, encouraging many Americans to do the same, overall increasing tensions within the United States and with the USSR. After Truman came the Moderate Republican Eisenhower, who pushed his “New Look” defense policy, encouraging more intimidating, longer-range weapons to be created to minimize military losses, turning the Cold War into an Arms Race. During Eisenhower’s presidency, a communist revolution occured in Vietnam, prompting the US to get involved, under the idea that communism would spread throughout the region if it wasn’t put down, Domino Theory (an extension of containment), the recent creation of the CIA, and the creation of SEATO, shifting the focus on stability rather than democracy, as long as such countries were anti-communist, proving the scope of the Cold War and the desperation of the US to minimize communism. Conflicts in the Middle East were also occurring, causing Eisenhower to ensue Eisenhower Doctrine, offering to give support to Middle Eastern countries fighting off communism, again proving the scale of the Cold War and the United States’ massive global power. Succeeding Eisenhower came John F. Kennedy, an incredibly attractive Catholic, Democrat who used his qualities to garner support. During the covered part of his presidency, Castro took power in Cuba, causing the US to fear it would fall to Soviet influence. This would happen and lead to the Cuban Missile Crisis, which would have begun a nuclear war if not for the negotiations between JFK and Khrushchev , Stalin’s successor since 1953, showing that negotiation was possible. Chapter 26 (Triumph of Middle Class) * World Bank & IMF- Made @ Bretton Woods in 1944; World Bank- gave loans to 3rd World countries & developing Europe; IMF- stabilize currencies based on USD; guided global economy after WWII * IKE & Military Industrial Complex- Defense spending & mobilization during WWII & CW led to massive employment & massive economic growth * Sputnik- Science & gov became more intertwined during CW; arms & space race; Sputnik was the first satellite in space; USSR; made Americans feel behind technologically * National Defense Education Act- Urged for more STEM to develop science stuff; upped funding for research universities like UCB, UMich, Stanford, MIT, etc. to advance in tech * Post War Econ Changes- Enormous amount of white collar workers joined for huge companies; Coca-Cola, IBM, Gillete, etc * Pros * Consumerism- Massive amount; unlike 1920’s b/c 1920’s was for personal indulgence; 1950’s was for development of American society & improving standard of living; kitchen appliances, educational materials, cars, houses, etc. * GI Bill- Gave returning WWII & Korean War veterans massive benefits; allowed many to attend college; allowed for more people to get higher paying jobs; stimulated economic growth & increased home ownership * Veterans Administration- Helped veterans buy homes w/ no down payments; increased home ownership & stimulated construction, car, home appliance, & other industries greatly; increased size of middle class * Collective Bargaining- Unions expanded immensely in size; now in most major industries (before; some craft workers & a lot of labor jobs like mining). Collective Bargaining allowed for unions to set terms for income, work hours, & employment w/ employers directly; Union contracts gained many welfare benefits (sick leaves, vacations, etc.); mostly peaceful but still some big strikes * Cons- Only really helped middle class; Affluent Society & Other America exposed growing wealth gap; poor were an “afterthought” of the gov * TV on Culture- Revolutionized advertising; shows reinforced American dream w/ typical White nuclear suburban families; very little African American representation * Youth Culture- Distinct teen culture & consumerism; Hollywood appealed to teens; old people didn’t like the “rebellious” & “dangerous” boomers * Rock N’ Roll- Alan Freed introduced White Americans to African American Rock N’ Roll; needed white figure; Elvis Presley became massively famous; old people didn’t like it b/c it encouraged interacial dating, rebellion, & explicit sexuality * Beats- African American jazz musicians experiments w/ Bebop; garnered attention of white Beats-- group of writers & poets in NYC & San Francisco who opposed middle-class materialism. Jack Kerouac’s On the Road (1957) encouraged sex, drugs, & spirutality; Beat Generation; rebels in the political (independent) & cultural sector * Changing Role of Church- People became more religious again b/c of “godless” communism & verge of war; Bill Graham-- Protestant evangelist used radio, tv, & ads to gain popularity. Norman Peale encouraged “positive thinking” to get through rough times. Set foundation of religion in politics during 60s-70s. * Baby Boom- ok boomer * Causes- Marriages were now romantic & people married younger, divorce rates were lower, people were just fuckin’, & economy was stable * Effects- Job market in 70’s was competitive, funding for Medicare & Social Security for all the boomers today is incredibly expensive * Dr.Spock- Gave advice on how women should raise children. Sent confusing messages on how protective women should be over their children; led to ideas behind the resurgence of the feminist movement in 60’s * Women’s Role- Motherhood; ideal was for them to stay at home & take care of children. In reality, women worked an immense amount outside of the home to support families since men’s wages often weren’t enough; “women’s jobs” teacher, nurse, etc. women were paid less than men & very few women in prestige jobs * Changing Sexual Social Norms * Kinsley- Zoologist Alfred Kinsley studied sexual behaviors of men & women; opened conversation for explicit sexuality; showed a majority of adults had sex before marriage; Politicians & statiscians opposed him b/c they argued results were biased & encouraged promiscuity; also showed 10% of Americans were homosexual; started to open conversation and homophile movement (though homosexuals were still heavily discriminated against): Mattachine Society & Daughters of Biltis were first homosexual organizations; opened Americans to sexuality & started homophile movement * Growth of Suburbs- Massive suburbanization after WWII * Levittown- William Levitt applied mass-production techniques to homes & built cheap, basic 4-bedroom homes; covenants; restricted minorities from living there; Shelley vs Kraemer prohibited racial covenants but that didn’t stop mortgage biases & minorities still found it very hard to move into suburbs * Federal Help- (Basically only Whites); Federal Housing Administration & Veteran Administration made it easier to afford houses * Highways- Massive influx in cars demanded highways; suburbs were created along side; National Interstate & Defense Highways Act immensely funded enormous highway projects; also led to creation of fast food chains. * Sunbelt- Large open spaces w/ little taxes in South & Southwest; Florida, Texas, California (made California’s econ go wayyyyy up) built with & through defense spending during WW2 & CW; Military Industrial Complex * Urban vs Suburban Societies- Sub; white middle-class families, Urb; Mostly minorities (African Americans primarily and some Latinos) * Urban Crisis- Cities had old infrastructure, housing problems for minorities, cultural separation due to immigration & migration huddling (e.g. Italian neighborhoods, Harlem, etc.) African Americans were heavily discriminated against in housing, segregation; public services & schools, & urban renewals to build highways & such for suburbs would displace millions of minorities & force them into cheap developments in poor condition * New Immigration- Policy slowly shifted; keep immigrants out (National Origins Act 1924) to letting more in; Displaced Persons Act allowed thousands of Europeans (mostly Jewish refugees in 1948); repealed Chinese Exclusion Act; McCarran Act of 1952 banned Asian exclusion. Revival of Bracero program during Korean War; many Mexican immigrants, Puerto Ricans moved in (a lot in NYC) as mechanization left many Puerto Ricans jobless, & Cubans escaped Castro (many went to Miami) Summary: Near the end of World War II, delegates met at Bretton Woods to create the World Bank, in hopes of assisting the development of 3rd world and developing countries through loans, and the IMF, to stabilize the global economy and currencies based on the US dollar; these efforts would guide the global economy post-World War II. This would also tie in to the United States’ immense economic power globally, in large part due to the Military Industrial Complex, wartime and defense mobilization. Domestically, this would lead to an era of economic prosperity in which the white American middle-class grew immensely, leading to a new surge in consumerism, which, now, unlike the consumerism seen in the 1920’s, focused on progressing and benefitting American society, a massive increase in the amount of white-collared workers in giant corporations such as Coca-Cola, Gillete, and IBM, a shift in education prioritizing science and research, also fueled by the Space and Arms War with the USSR, unions becoming more organized and going on less strikes. These were all aided by the GI Bill and the Veterans Administration in which thousands of veterans returning from war could attend college and be aided in finding homes through housing programs. Culturally, this would affect America in 4 main ways. Firstly, young Americans, most of them born during the Baby Boom which was facilitated by the immense amount of returning veterans moving to suburbs and a better economy, found themselves listening to new genres of music, such as rock n’ roll, and watching new types of Hollywood films, creating a tension between them and their parents, where older generations believed teens were rebellious and dangerous. Secondly, women were now idealized to be working at home and taking care of the kids, despite the large amount of women in the workforce. Unfortunately, however, women were often limited to “women’s jobs”, such as teaching, nursing, and other services, and were more often than not paid a stark amount less than their male counterparts, ultimately fueling the resurgence of the feminist movement in the 60’s and 70’s. Thirdly, through the scientific research on behaviors of men and women conducted by Alfred Kinsley, Americans, mostly young Americans, became more exposed and more open to the idea and talking about sex. This would also lead to the beginning of the Homophile movement, in which homosexuals began to organize in groups such as the Mattachine Society and/or the Daughters of Biltis. Finally, in large part to the verge of war and the threat of “godless” communism, Americans started to become religious once more, with Bill Graham and Norman Peale, who encouraged “positive thinking”, being key figures of the religious resurgence (this is not to say Americans stopped being religious, it was just that, now, Americans became more religious). Obviously, the rapidly expanding middle-class needing housing, causing an era of suburbanization, aided by the previously mentioned GI Bill and Veterans Administration, best seen in the construction of Levittowns, the Sunbelt, and the massive influx of highway construction. Despite these successes, not many of these could be shared with minorities. Minorities found themselves moving into urban cities with poor infrastructure, housing, segregation, and oftentimes being displaced due to constructions aiding suburbs. Unfortunately, despite the decision in Shelley v. Kreamer prohibiting racial discrimination in convenants and housing agreements, minorities were regulary denied mortages and access to suburbs. With new immigration patterns, however, came new waves of immigrants, mostly being Asians, due to the repeal of Chinese Exclusion Act, Jewish European refugees, Mexican Braceros during the Korean War, Puerto Ricans seeking jobs in NYC, and Cubans, escaping Castro in Miami. Chapter 27 (Civil Rights) * Jim Crow- South; political & economic discrimination; sharecroppers, “in the back workers”, poll taxes, literacy tests, voter intimidation, & white only polls. North; Still segregated but less; whites lived in suburbs, AA lived in cities, “ghettos”; less job opportunities * Role of WWII on CR- Civil Rights movement began due to expansion of AA middle-class & more educated AAs. * Phillip A. Randolph- Planned to march to DC w/ Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters; most prominent AA Union, to end job discrimination in wartime industries; FDR stopped it by issuing: * Executive Order 8802- prohibited employment discrimation & created Fair Employment Practice Commission; didn’t do much but set precedent for federal action on CR * Double V Campaign- James G. Thomspon pushed for victory over facism abroad & victory over racism at home; showed loyalty to axis but pushed the fight against racism forwards; CORE & Fellowship of Reconciliation; first AA group to boycott buses under James Farmer; peaceful organizations * Resistance- Hate strikes; whites would stop working b/c they didn’t wanna work w/ AAs * Truman & Civil Rights- Civil Rights leader; CW helped AAs by wanting to reduce racism to establish more democracy; did as much harm as good b/c white southerners- Dixiecrats- argued CR was communistic * Successes: Truman pushed for CR under equality under law & growth of importance of AA vote; abolished poll taxes, Exc. Order 9981 desegregated army * Resistance- Dixiecrats under Storm Thurgood; white southerners (States Rights’ Party); split Dem party in 2 * Thurgood Marshall- NAACP lawyer who wanted to overturn racial discrimination; first AA SCOTUS Justice * Brown v. BOE- Under Thurgood Marshall & Earl Warren; used 14th Amen to overturn “separate but equal” of Plessy v Ferguson in education system * Resistance- Huge Southern white resistance; KKK, local govs defying it, violence; Southern Manifesto * Murder of Emmet Till- 14 year old AA boy murdered; jury let clearly guily killers innocent; enraged AA America; showed that despite being after Brown, gov still wouldn’t help them * Montgomery Bus Boycotts- AA’s stopped using busses after Rosa Parks * Causes- Need for non-violent protest, after Emmet Till, Rosa Parks * Key Figures- Rosa Parks, MLK, Ralph Abernathy * Results- Almost led bus companies to bankruptcy, SCOTUS ruled bus segregation unconstitutional * SCLC- Southern Christian Leadership Conference; AA women pushed for CR; joined NAACP * Greensboro Sit-in- Peaceful protest; AA students sat at “white” spots in lunch-courts; encouraged many AAs to do the same all over South; worked well & lunch segregation reduced greatly * SNCC- Ella Baker; Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee; aided student protests; became largest organization for AA college students & inspired the younger generations * Freedom Rides- White & AA protestors rode buses to expose violations of recent SCOTUS rulings; organized by CORE; received brutal resistance from KKK & other whites; local govs didn’t do much & neither did JFK b/c he needed white Southerner vote; General Attorney Robert Kennedy sent out marshals to stop resistance; showed how non-violent protests could get violent response * Letter from Birmingham Jail- MLK; pusheed for non-violent protest to create tensions to shift the ideas of racists; violent attacks on AA in Birmingham, AL; violent response to non-violent protests; JFK now denounced racism & promised a Civil Rights Bill * March on Washington- 1963; Thousands of AA & whites marched to DC; Philip A. Randolph inspired; MLK “I have a dream speech”; inspired AAs & changed mind of Northern whites’ opinion; didn’t do much in Congress * Civil Rights Act (1964)- Lyndon B Johnson; successor to JFK after his assasination; goal was to pass Civil Rights Bill; extremely persuasive & got it through Congress; prohibited segregation, job discrimination, established Equal Employement Oppurtunity Commission; left out voting rights * Freedom Summer- Protestors went back to the streets b/c lack of voting rights in CR Act; big 4 CR organizations attended-- SCLC, CORE, SNCC, NAACP; made freedom schools for AA children & helped AAs w/ voting registration; Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was created too b/c AAs were banned from Miss Dem Party under Fannie Hamer * Voting Rights Act of 1965- Protested for by march from Salem, AL to Montgomery, AL; state troopers stopped them in violent attacks; “Bloody Sunday”; prompted LBJ to go back to Congress & pass Voting Rights Act; banned literacy tests & other forms of voting restriction; paired w/ 24th Amen-- stopped poll tax --; immense voting uptake & AA office holding; New Deal Coalition now became Democratic Party; Conservative Dems switched to Republican party; reason for why Republicans are conservative & Democrats liberal * Black Nationalism & Nation of Islam- Frustrated w/ slow progress of reform & little AA’s in power; black nationalism -- embraced AA culture & pride in being AA; Nation of Islam; fused rejection Christianity w/ strong philospohy of self imrpovement; popular in Muslim AAs in northern cities * Malcom X- Beliefs; wanted militant separatism & didn’t care to change white people’s mind; black nationalist; part of National of Islam but eventually left to work w/ CR organizations; murdered in 1965 * Black Power Movement- Didn’t want to depend on white allies; pushed for AAs to build econ & poli power in their own communities; embraced Black Nationalism & pride * Black Panther Party- Huey Neutron & Bobby Seale; radical militant group who defended AAs from police violence & aided AA communities; hated Vietnam War & supported 3rd World revolutions; often got in violent conflicts w/ police; disrupted by FBI * AAs in Politics- Large AA population in Atlanta, Cleveland, Detroit, & DC elected first AA mayors of large cities; Carl Stokes in Cleveland; National Black Political Convention; issued National Bank Political Agenda -- control of schools in AA neighborhood, national health insurance, & removal of death penalty; Dems didn’t enact it but AAs became increasingly involved in politics * Watts Riot- Rioting after arrest of AA motorist; turned violent & Johnson called for National Guard; Johnson thought Civil Rights & Voting Rights Act was enough; AA leaders condemned riots; exposed the poverty and racism in lower-class AAs; Johnson created Kenner Commission Report under Otto Kenner to look at racial injustices honestly; found that whites & blacks were unequal; MLK began to fight against poverty & racism, criticizing Congress for prioritizing Vietnam War; whites felt like Congress were putting too much emphasis on Civil Rights & racism * Cesar Chavez- Mexican-American “version” of MLK; fought for economic struggles in community; Community Service Organization (CSO); agricultural unions; violent Chicano movements like Black Power * AIM- Native American movement; inspired by Black Power & Chicano movements; Red Power; concerned w/ poor conditions of reserves & often used violence Summary: Throughout the Second World War and the Cold War, minorities, specifically African Americans were still oppressed by Jim Crow laws, limiting their social, political, and economic power in both the North and the South, though particularly worse in the South. This would spark the need for the Civil Rights Movement, beginning with notable examples during WWII, such as the Double V Campaign, which fought racism on the homefront and facism abroad, and Philip A. Randolph’s planned march to DC to protest the job discrimination in war industries, which was stopped by FDR issuing Excecutive Order 8802, which prohibited job discrimination, ulimately being unsuccessful but setting a precedent for federal action. This would then lead in Truman’s presidency. Being a civil rights advocate himself, Truman did all he could do to push for equality under the law, issuing Executive Order 9981, which desegregated the army. However, many of his ideas were blocked by the Dixiecrats (Southern Democrats) in Congress, showing the beginning of white southern resistance. This would lead into the real Civil Rights movement, which occurred in 3 main waves-- equality under the law through peaceful protest, peaceful protest for voting rights, and then a surge of violent action to combat racism and poverty among African Americans. Beginning with the push for equality under the law, under Thurgood Marshall, the first African American SCOTUS Justice, the “separate but equal” precedent set in Plessy v Ferguson was overturned in Brown v BOE, through the 14th Amendment. Despite this, segregation in bus lines and other public services continued to be segregated, sparking the non-violent bus boycotts in Montgomery, the Freedom Riders, the Greensboro Sit-Ins, the creation of the SNCC under Ella Baker, and the March on Washington where Martin Luther King Jr. gave his famous speech “I have a Dream”. This would all spark a massive amount of white resistance, occurring everywhere, but primarily in the South. However, now that Lyndon B. Johnson was in office, keen to continue to push for JFK’s promised Civil Rights Bill and using moral guilt-traps to convince the largely southern white Congress, the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964, granting equal rights to all races. However, the Civil Rights Act left out voting rights, causing the “second” wave of the Civil Rights Movement, which focused on assuring voting rights to African Americans, spawning Freedom Summer in which Southern Africans helped African Americans register for voting and the immense white resistance, best seen on “Bloody Sunday” . This would also lead LBJ to return to Congress and create the Voting Rights Act of 1965, removing any forms of voting restrictions, pairing nicely with the 24th Amendment removing the poll tax, leading to a huge increase in African American votes and African Americans holding government jobs, also further splitting the Democratic party in two, with many Southern Dixiecrats turning to the now increasingly conservative Republican party. Despite the massive improvements seen during this period, racism and poverty among African Americans was still rampant, causing the “third” wave of the Civil Rights Movement-- Black Nationalism, the Nation of Islam, and Black Power, the Black Panther Party, and the Watts Riot, which, while not inherintely bad and unjustified, often used violence to get their points across. This built two divisions of the Civil Rights Movement -- the peaceful one and the non-peaceful one -- best categorized by MLK and Malcom X (though they were not part of every peaceful/non-peaceful group). The Civil Rights movement primarily focused on African Americans, however, other minorities were inspired by such, creating Cesar Chavez’s (“the Mexican-American MLK”) peaceful Community Service Organization, aiming to help Mexican American communities. However, violent groups also began to rise up, mostly, the Chicano Movement. The same could also be said about Native Americans who fought against the poor conditions and poverty on reserves, with peaceful groups existing such as the National Indian Youth Council, and non-peaceful groups, such as the American Indian Movement and Red Power. Chapter 28- (Modern Era & Liberalism) * JFK’s Domestic Agenda- Wanted liberal reform - health insurance, tax cut, & education - massive delays from Congress; assassinated in 1963; devastated the nation * LBJ & Great Society- Texas politician; master negotiator; wanted to be a president for all people & make history. Great Society; pushed for education, health insurance, end of poverty, end of racial injustice, rebuilding cities, & restoring environment * Economic Opportunity Act- Series of programs to minimize poverty; “War on Poverty”; Head Start- free nursing schools, Job Corps & Upward Bound helped employment, Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA); technical aid to poor areas; critics; “focused too much on services & not enough on jobs” * Election of 1964- Dem; Johnson vs. Rep; Goldwater -- anti-communist, anti-gov campaign; conservative alternative to liberalism; campaigned agaisnt Civil Rights act & wanted to expand CW foreign policy; Johnson won b/c of JFK sentiment * Great Society Programs- Resembled ND & Progressive Era * Education- Elementary & Secondary Education Act for teacher training; Higher Education act for federal college scholarships * Healthcare- Medicare; health plan for elderly based on Social Security, Medicaid; health care for poor based on tax revenues * Environment- Plans helped preserve environment, improve air & water, beautification * Public Improvements- Department of Housing & Urban Development (HUD); funded housing projects, Metro systems, consumer protection, child safety laws * Immigration- Removed quotas and replaced them w/ numerical limits; better; massive amount of immigration from Asia & Latin America b/c families could reunite w/o touching the numerical limit * Results- Poverty dropped, Medicare & Medicaid helped millions; Conservatives argued it occurred b/c of the economic boom of the period not GSl still racial discrimination, huge wealth gap, poverty remained * Women’s Movement- Inspired by CR movement; felt like not enough was being done for women * Labor Feminists- Trade unions; women demanded equal pay; got Equal Pay Act in 1963 * Betty Friedan & Feminine Mystique- Targeted at college educated, middle-class women who were stuck in the homel urged for women to work outside; already happening w/ improved divorce laws, better education, & birth control * National Organization for Women- Sexual discrimination had been added to Civil Rights Act; Friedan created NOW (Nat Org for Women) in 1966; aimed to create true equality between men & women;huge voice for women during this era (NAACP of women’s rights) * Vietnam War- Chaos caused when JFK’s coup assassinated both Diem & his brother for their repressive rule over South Viet; LBJ; refused to give it up b/c of Domino Theory * Gulf Of Tonkin- Vietnamese “attacks” (prob didn’t acc happen) on US Ship Maddox; Johnson was set on sending troops & thought war was inevitable * G of T Resolution- Gave LBJ freedom to do as he pleased in Viet; pledged to not go to war b/c of GS; situation worsened * Operation Rolling Thunder- Massive bombing plan on North Vietnam; General McNamara; little effect b/c Vietnamese rebuilt better infrastructure, moved camps underground, & motivated them to fight harder * Credibility Gap- Johnson was concealing bad news on war progress; gap between reality & what Johnson said; Americans once supported war but opinion shifted in 1967 when Americans saw horrors of war on TV, war was expensive for taxpayers, & increased inflation & debt b/c of war spending * Student Movement * Students for a Democratic Society- SDS; liberals; founded in Ann Arbor at UMich; protested war & held convention in Port Huron, MI * Port Huron Statement- Tom Hayden; expressed student’s disappointment w/ consumer culture, massive wealth gap, & war * New Left- SDS movement; spread to other universities like U of W & Berkeley; Berkeley students protested when administrators banned political activism on campus. Draft protests; Removal of Selective Service System which allowed students to avoid drafts, college students protested all around the nation; some fled to Canada * Young Americans for Freedom- YAF; conservative counterpart; defended free enterprise & Viet War. YAF defended the econ & poli systems SDS fought against * Sharon Statement- Their manifesto; got Reagen support in 80s * Counterculture- Hippies & drugs; drew inspiration from folk; media painted them as revolters who rejected all social norms * Tet Offensive- Vietcong, communist NV leader, organized assault on Viet New Years in SV. NV lost a lot of troops; military failure, but destroyed American morale & exposed LBJ’s lies of American success in war & caused him to not run for re-election; shocked the nation * Political Assassinations- 1968; MLK- caused massive riots in Baltimore, DC, Chicago, Robert F. Kennedy; most popular democratic nominee, lost 3 major liberal figures (LBJ, MLK, RFK) * National Democratic Convention (1968)- Chicago held convention; sparked massive riots against war; “Jippies” nominated pig to mock Dems; Jerry Rubin & Abbie Hoffman led most riots; police intervention, got violent * Richard Nixon- Growth of support from working-class Northerners & White Southerners after distrust between public & Dems; Strategy; based of George Wallace -- segregationist, populist -- Southern strategy; wanted to get white votes in South while glossing over CR & suburban votes by condemning Anti-War movement to make streets safer; many White Southerners voted Republican & ND Dems lost unity; foreshadowed later political realignment * Silent Majority- Nixon’s supporters; ordinary Americans who were against counterculture & anti-war riots * Minorities against Viet War- Chicano movement argued war was a unjust war against colored people; Chicano Moratorium Committee; Cesar Chavez went against biased war drafts against poor; African Americans; Black Panther Party & National Black Antiwar Anitdraft League * Women’s Liberation Movement- New brand of Feminism; young, college-educated women, supported CR, antiwar, New Left, tired of being treated as second class citizens & sexual objects; similar to Black Power b/c of pride & counterculture b/c of self-dramatization; Kate Millet; introduced sexual politics; liberation argued for abortion, awareness of sexual harrasement; women’s right to her body. Got many women in positions of power; Congress; Bella Abzug & Shirly Chisholm; National Women’s Political Caucus * Title IX- Addition to Civil Rights to include educational discrimination based on sex * Gay Liberation- Inspired by women’s liberation; demanded equal rights- marriage, discrimination, police harrasement; Stonewall Riots; gay patrons burned down NY bar after police raids & harassement; major blow of Gay Liberation Mov. Greatly increased size of movement; National Gay Task Force to lobby Congress * Nixon & Viet War- Nixon wanted “peace w/ honor” in Viet not to harm the US’ reputation; Vietnamization; policy which greatly reduced amount of soldiers in Viet * War in Cambodia- Americans destroyed enemy bases in neutral Cambodia enraged students; Kent State riots ended in student deaths after National Guardsmen shot; Jackson State; 2 students killed; closed down most schools & worsened trust between liberals & gov * My Lai Massacre- American massacre of S. Viet village; only known to military until Seymour Hersh exposed the story; enraged Americans * Detente w/ USSR & China- Nixon lessened tensions w/ USSR & opened up w/ China; end of Arms Race w/ mutual Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I); Nixon said China & US could coexist despite capitalism vs communism; wanted to befriend China & USSR for better treaty in Viet * End of Viet War- Paris Peace Accords in 1973 after American “Christmas Bombing” since S Viet president interfered w/ diplomat Kissinger’s previous plans; communists won; American distrust of gov * Warren Court- Since Brown vs BOE SCOTUS began to focus more on civil and human rights; Earl Warren; Republican but very liberal appointed by IKE; advocate for Civil Rights; important cases -- Miranda v Arizona; Miranda Rights- Constitutional Rights to counsel during an arrest; “right to remain silent”; Roth v US allowed pornography under liberal standards; Conservatives heavily criticized Warren Court for being harmingly liberal; blamed it for increasing crime rates * Desegregation- South continued to segregate; SCOUTS upheld Charlotte-Mechantanburg plan; desegregation of buses & schools to entire country; segregation in North b/c of suburbs; still massive desegregation in 60s & 70s however * 1972 Election- Dems left their party in opposition to current liberalism; Nixon won by a landslide; marked US shift to conservatism Summary: Succeeding the assisination of JFK, cutting his domestic agenda of liberal reform through health insurance, tax cuts, and education, and devastating the nation, President Lyndon B. Johnson, an ambitious negotiator, took office, pushing for his Great Society program including liberal reforms for education, health insurance, the rebuilding of cities while preserving the environment, ending racial injustice, but most importantly, the end of poverty, seen best the Economic Opportunity Act and Healthcare programs like Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor. Despite being ambitious and well-intended, mimicking the New Deal and Progressive Era in a sense, it did little to stop poverty, however, the effects of Medicaid and Medicare are still markable today. During this era of liberal reform came a new Women’s Movements, inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, creating NOW, created by Betty Friedan, author of the Feminine Mystique which urged for women to prove themselves and escape domesticity, (National Organization for Women) in 1966, aiming to create true equality between men and women, resembling the NAACP. During this era, tensions in Vietnam worsened and LBJ, despite trying his best to not let the situation get out of hand, ended up having to take matters into his own hands, refusing to let Vietnam “go” due to Domino Theory, resulting in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution caused after Vietnamese ships supposedly attacked a US Ship, Maddox, allowing Johnson to do as he pleased in Vietnam. Leading to his Operation Rolling Thunder in which he and General McNamara planned a strategy of mass-bombings in Vietnam, ultimately being unsuccesful and inspiring Vietnamese soldiers to fight harder. However, due to a credibility gap between the success Americans were told of and the reality of the situation, being that Americans weren’t winning, and the horrors of war showing on every Americans TV, public opinion and support of the war dwindled, creating the anti-war movement. This movement was led primarily by college students, such as Tom Hayden, who created Students for a Democratic Society, condemning the war, the huge American wealth gap, and American consumer culture in the SDS’ Port Huron Statement, essentially creating the New Left movement, inspiring other universities such as Wisconsin and Berkeley to take part and protest the war and drafting, some students even fleeing to Canada to avoid the war. However, groups of students also countered the New Left’s point, most of which belonging to the Young Americans for Freedom (YAF), pre-dating the SDS, expressing their points in the Sharon statement, defending what the SDS fought against. However, college students were the only ones contesting the war, as a counterculture began; hippies who drew inspiration from folk music and believed in a more spiritual way of life. Only exemplifying this was the loss of American morale after the Tet Offensive in Vietnam, a massive Northern attack on South Vietnam, going to the extent of causing Johnson to not run for re-election, shocking a large number of Americans. Paired with the recent assassinations of MLK and Robert F. Kennedy, two massively famous liberal leaders, the liberal movement had lost three of its most important figures. This would lead to the protests and riots outside of the National Democratic Convention in 1968, causing Republican Richard Nixon to gain massive popularity with his Southern Strategy, appealing to both northern suburban and white southern voters; the silent majority as he deemed them, Americans who were upset with counterculture and the violence of anti-war riots. Despite this, liberal movements continued, with minorities fighting against the war in the Chicano Moratorium Committee led by Cesar Chavez and the National Black Antiwar Antidraft League. During this era, women began to also push for the Women’s Liberation Movement, in which young, college-educated women, such as Kate Millet, who introduced sexual politics, pushed for the women’s right to her body and the end of women being treated as second class citizens, creating the National Women’s Political Caucus, leading to the addition of Title IX in the Civil Rights Act, including educational discrimination based on sex. This would also spart the Gay Liberation movement, demanding equal rights in marriage, discrimination, and against police harrasement, best sene in the Stonewall Riots and the National Gay Task Force, which lobbied Congress. After garnering support from the silent majority and, in turn, becoming president, Nixon aimed for peace with honor in Vietnam, reducing the amount of soldiers there in his Vietnamization policy. However, despite these efforts, when American soldiers raided Cambodia, destroying enemy bases in a neutral country, American college students once again found themselves enraged, leading to the Kent State and Jackson State riots, resulting in the first cases of deaths in these riots. Despite that, Nixon continued in his efforts to reduce Vietnam and Cold War tensions, singing the Paris Peace Accords treaty in 1973 and his Detente policy with China and the USSR, allowing capitalism and communism to coexist and creating a significant mutual agreement between USSR and US, the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, practically ending the Arms Race. During Nixon’s Presidency, Earl Warren, a supposed conservative yet very liberal in his views, was appointed Supreme Court Chief Justice, shifting the Supreme Court into more civil rights and human rights issues, best seen in the Miranda v Arizona case, ruling that it is one’s constitutional rights to be told their rights, the Miranda Rights, during an arrest, garnering conservative criticism of being to liberal. During this time, desegregation of schools and buses occurred at great amounts in both the South and North. However, perhaps the most important part of this era was the seemingly inevitable, after the New Deal Coalition became dominant in the Democratic Party, was the realignment of Americans, conservatives now fully dedicated to the Republican Party and liberals now dedicated to the Democratic Party, but also the shift away from liberalism and back to conservatism with the re-election of Nixon in 1972. Chapter 29- Era of Limits * Limits- Rapid inflation due to military spending in Viet, oil crisis due to Middle Eastern embargo causing energy crisis, surge in unemployment * OPEC- Organization of Petroleum Expanding Countries; business association to regulate prices (cartel); Persian Gulf states w/ a lot of oil * Embargo- OPEC placed embargo w/ US in 1973 in response to US aid to Israel during Yom-Kippur War; OPEC was against Israel; oil prices in US skyrocketed; oil had become a political weapon; exposed US’ dependence on Persian States for energy; caused mass-inflation & economic downfall * Environmentalism- Sparked after energy crisis; revival of Progressive Era movement; Sierra Club, Wilderness Society, & Natural Resources Council all regained popularity; Silent Spring by Rachel Carson brought awareness for pesticides; Earth Day; 1970; millions of Americans gathered to show support for cleaner Earth * EPA- Environmental Protection Agency; created after a Santa Barbara oil spill; made environmental regulation on companies; hated by such companies & unions * Nuclear Power & Three Mile Island- Nuclear power seemed like alternative to coal; didn’t pollute but environmentalists warned of leakage damage; Three Mile Island nuclear power plant almost leaked; shocked the nation; no new nuclear power plants were built into the 80s * Economic Changes- Shift from industrial-manufacturing econ to postindustrial-service one; began to manufacture less while increasing services; financial, health-care, counseling (financial), etc * Stagflation- Stagnant consumer demand yet prices still went up; Americans had less purchasing power * Attempted Solutions- Nixon’s New Econ Policy imposed temporary price & wage controls trying to curb inflation in 1973, Gerald Ford’s WIN (Whip Inflation Now) urged Americans to cut food waste & to do more w/ less; wasn’t very popular; all unsuccessful * Deindustrialization- Massive US steel industry replaced by West Germany & Japan w/ new tech; other US industries followed suit; Rust Belt; abandoned industry in Northeast & Northwest; left many blue-collar workers jobless, strikes surged buy labor movement ultimately failed b/c industries could not meet their demands; decline of liberalism w/ suburban expansion & tax revolts caused by increasing property taxes * Watergate- G. Gordan Liddy & E. Howard Hunt (former FBI & CIA agents) wire-taped the Democratic National Committee; Nixon denied White House involvement despite both of them being part of CREEP (Nixon’s re-election committee); Carl Bernstein & Bob Woodward leaked it to Washington Post; Nixon resigned before impeachment trial; overall worsened distrust between Americans & gov & made Reps more conservative * Legislation Results- War Powers Act (‘73)- controlled President’s ability to deploy troops w/o congressional approval, Freedom of Information Act (‘74)- gave public federal records, Ethics in Gov Act (‘78)- Prohibited wiretapping; all to reduce president’s power after Watergate incident * “Watergate Babies”- Democrats who used the Watergate incident in their favor to gain popularity; young & reform minded; grabbed majority in Congress; set out to decentralize gov power * Jimmy Carter- Georgia Governor; Dem/“Watergate Baby”; pledged to increase transparency in White House; became president on “outsider” approach * Domestic Challenges- Somewhat unfit for presidency; couldn’t manage feminists, couldn’t negotiate w/ Congress, couldn’t manage economy; De-regulation; removed some ND regulation to drive competition; hurt Unions & was ineffective * Affirmative Action- Took into account someone’s disadvantages based on race or gender (women) in college, gov, & employment admissions; opposed by conservatives for being “reverse discrimation”; pushed for by Civil Rights activists & women * Balke v U of Cali- Alan Balke sued UC Davis for taking AA students over him; SCOTUS ruled for affirmative action but only as a consideration, not a quota like Davis had * Women’s Rights & ERA- Flourished during 70’s; Women’s Liberation; ended most all men colleges like Yale & Columbia; Our Bodies, Ourselves called for abortion reform (for abortion) & anti-rape movement; renewed fight for Equal Rights Amendment from 1920’s; almost got ratified; female lawyer Phyllis Schlafly organized STOP-ERA movement; pushed for traditional women’s role * ROE v Wade- Women wanted abortion rights; Griswold v Connecticut previously allowed married couples to have contraceptives; expanded to ROE v Wade; ruled avbortion was legal in 1st trimester b/c it was a woman’s privacy; triumph for women; hated by conservatives & Christians * Harvey Milk- Face of Gay Liberation Movement; mobilized “gay vote” into a bloc to be elected on the Board of Supervisors in San Franciso; prominent gay politican * Burger Court- Conservative Warren Burger was appointed by Nixon; didn’t scale back on liberal precedents of Warren Court; Burger Court helped CR movement; reluctant to gay rights * Changing Family Values- Falling wages; more women got into workplace for higher paying jobs to support family; sexual revolution -- sex was now socially wlecomed; caused by birth control pill, feminism, & baby boom; popular culture followed suit * Evangelical Resurgence- Billy Graham; focused on literal interpretation of Bible in Christian institutions (schools, colleges, etc.); sparked by increase in divorce rates, counterculture, homosexuality, & legalized abortion; “moral decay of society”; used TV (Televanglism); began New Right’s “Family Values” political campaigns as liberalism in 60-70s had “destabilized” society Summary: Beginning this period was the vast limitations of the 70s and 80s; the Energy Crisis caused by a Persian embargo by OPEC, exposing just how dependent the US was on foreign energy, rapid inflation with wages stagnating (stagflation), deindustrialization caused by industry booming in West Germany and Japan, leaving America technologically behind, and environmental problems causing the EPA to be created to enforce environmental regulation on companies. Specifically, these economic problems remained due to the unsuccessful attempts to fix them by Nixon, Ford, and Carter. During Nixon’s presidency, the Watergate scandal occurred, in which members of Nixon’s reelection committee, CREEP, wiretapped the Democratic National Committee, leading to immediate reform to weaken the president’s power, Nixon’s resign, and a group of Democrats who banked on the Watergate scandal to rebuild popularity in their party; “Watergate Babies”. One of those “Watergate Babies” was Jimmy Carter, an “outsider” who was ultimately unfit for presidency, not being able to handle feminist demands, negotiate with Congress, nor fix the economy. During this period, a new era of Civil Rights also occurred, beginning with Affirmative Action ruled for at Balke v U of California, aiding minorities and women in college, government, and employment admissions. This would also lead to the Feminism movement resurging, demanding an Equal Rights Amendment, which was never ratified, being countered by Schlafly and her STOP-ERA movement, and abortion rights, decided for at ROE v Wade. Part of this rights movement was also the Gay Rights Movement, best represented by Harvey Milk. During Nixon’s presidency, the SCOTUS Chief Justice also changed from Earl Warren to Warren Burger, a conservative who didn’t scale back on the liberal precedents of the Warren Court. Finally, during this family values changed to accomadate for the low economy by allowing more women to work in higher paid jobs, which was countered by the “Family Values” of conservative Christians in the Evangelical Resurgence sparked by Billy Graham in response to increasing divorce rates, counterculture, homosexuality, and legalized abortion; or “the decay of society” caused by liberalism. APUSH Unit 9 Study Guide (1980-Present) Chapter 30 (Conservative Resurgence) * Rise of Conservatism- Rise of modern day Republicans with politicians like Goldwater & Reagan - free market, lower taxes, family values, work ethic, and national security * Leading Issues * Taxpayer’s Revolt- Huge tax cut by around 30% led by Jack Kemp & William Roth * Religious Revival- “Televangelists”; rise of religious values in politics: pro-life, etc. * De-regulation of Business- American Enterprise Institute, Cato Institute, & US Chamber of Commerce lobbied for lower taxes, weakened labor unions, & less regulation on businesses * Election of 1980- Reagan (Rep) vs. Carter (Dem); lesser of two evils; huge Republican wins for Presidency and in Congress; broke New Deal coalition. Worsened with the huge Democrat failure in the election of 1984. * Reagan Domestic Policies- Less taxes, reduce government spending on welfare, build up US armed forces, & create a conservative federal court. * Reaganomics- Supply-Side economics: argued reducing gov spending & decreased taxes = more investments in the private sector & more overall economic prosperity; critics argued this only helped the rich like the “trickle-down” economics in the 1920’s * Economic Recovery Act- set highest tax bracket to 28%: good for rich ppl & business, bad for welfare * Spending Cuts- Reduced spending on food stamps, students loans, mass transportations, etc. * Deregulation- Reduced regulation on savings, loans institutions, mergers and takeovers by large corporations, & environmental protection * Labor Unions- Huge weakening of unions by hiring replacements and firing many labor staff, etc. * Military Build-up- Big $$$ were put into the military; further detailed in foreign policy part * Courts- Appointed conservative judges like Sandra Day O’Connor: limited Affirmative Action & Roe v. Wade (abortion=legal) by allowing states to impose their own restrictions on abortion * Recession- 1982: worst recession since 1930; Reaganomics set America back straight BUT it heavily worsened the wealth gap between poor & rich * Failure of Reaganomics- Huge deficit spendings occurred & the US’ debt went from $900 billion to $2.7 trillion. Congress tried to reduce the federal deficit with the Gramm-Rudman-Hollings Balanced Budget Act. Basically, put the US in massive debt, let companies run free, & eliminated the possibility of any welfare programs: still applies today. * Reagan’s Foreign Policy- not as bad; very anti-communist 1st term, less 2nd * Renewing the Cold War- Huge military spending to aid anti-communist forces in Latin America: Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI); high-tech military initiative: critics called it “Star Wars” for being too expensive and unrealistic * Latin America- Supported “friendly” anti-communist dictators; Grenada invasion * Iran-Contra Affair- Sold arms to Iran in return for Iran freeing American hostages: diverged funds to Nicaraguan contras (anti-communists); very controversial as it violated the Boland Amendment: Reagan suffered a short & temporary drop in popularity * Middle East- Sent US troops to Lebanon to peacekeep b/c of Lebanese Civil War & the PLO (Palestination Liberation Org) * Improved Relations w/ USSR- New USSR leader Gorbachev led major reforms (1) glasnost - more political freedom and liberty (2) perestroika - introducing free market aspects to the Russian econ; Gorbachev & Reagan agreed to remove all intermediate range missiles (INF agreement) and loosened pressure in Iran & Iraq * Election of 1988- George H.W. Bush (Rep) vs Michael Dukakis (Dem): Bush wins but Congress is a majority of Dems. Bush pledged for no new taxes: “read my lips”; and a “new world order” for peace & democracy * End of Cold War- European nations began to separate from the USSR (beginning w/ Poland) and Chinese citizens rebelled against communist party in the Tiananmen Square protest (hundreds were killed). 1990: Berlin wall falls (symbolic end of Cold War). 1991: breakup of Soviet Union * START I & II- Agreement between Bush & Russia to reduce nuclear arms; US also offered to assist the Russian Federation economically. * Impacts- Americans questioned whether the US needed to be so globally & militarily active now that the Cold War ended * Persian Gulf War- Iraq’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, invaded Kuwait for oil; US created a coalition of UN members to drive out Hussein: Iraq got defeated but Hussein was not stopped * Domestic Problems of Bush- addressed very little domestically * Economy- Taxes were raised despite Bush promising not to because of huge federal deficit; conservatives lost trust in Bush * Americans with Disabilities Act- 1990; prohibited discrimination in public accomadation, transportation, & hiring based off disabilities * Election of 1992- Clinton (moderate dem) vs Bush (Rep) vs Ross Perot (Ind). Clinton focused on domestic issues around the economy, “It’s the economy, stupid!”. Clinton won & dems took over Congress * Clinton’s First Term * Healthcare- Pushed for universal healthcare, but the US is stupid and said no * “Don’t ask, don’t tell”- Policy which determined members of military could be fired for being homosexual, but would not be asked of such. * Family & Medical Leave Act- Covered family & medical leave * NAFTA- Created a free-trade zone with Canada & Mexico * Election of 1994- Republicans take control of Congress; “end of big government” Congress Reps push for tax cuts, etc. and force Clinton to be a centrist * Election of 1996- Clinton gets re-elected & Congress stays Republican * Technology Boom- Largest peacetime economic boom b/c of tech (internet, computers, etc.) Led to massive surplus in gov $; agreed to use it for tax cuts and giving tax credits for families w/ high education costs. * Impeachment- HOR charged Clinton w/ lying about cheating on his wife under a federal oath and obstruction of justice; never got through senate * Foreign Policy- Minimal * Russia- Conflicts with previous satellite states; major usage of NATO power. US-Russia relations got a little worse with Putin’s suppression of civil war in Chechnya and by admittance of previous satellite states to NATO * North Korea- Started making nuclear program; America got mad; NK agreed to stop but continued making them * Globalization- Surge in trade, communications, and movement of capital: World Trade Organization (WTO) help oversee trade agreements; G-8 countries remained in the lead but China, Brazil, & India began to gain power; growing tensions & wealth gap between developed and developing countries. * American Society in 2000 ________________ * Immigration- Immigration Reform and Control Act created a fair process for immigrants, failed to stop illegal immigration; most immigrants were Hispanic or Asian * Family- Way more old people: put strains on Social Security. Huge influx in single mothers; more kids growing up in poverty w/o support * Wealth- Rich got way richer: 5% owning ½ of all wealth; richest country in the world but largest wealth gap of industrialized nations. Huge racial wealth gap too. Summary:As conservatism and the desire for a free market, lower taxes, and family values seemed to prevail in late 1970’s America, it was only inevitable that Ronald Reagan would be elected in the election of 1980. A heavy conservative, Reagan would come to introduce “modern Republicanism” with his Reaganomics, or Supply-Side economics, which argued for reducing government spending and decreased taxes would help the private sector and the economy as a whole, applying these principles to the Economic Recovery Act which greatly reduced income taxes by setting the highest bracket to 28%. Reagan would also be keen to deregulate industries and weaken labor unions, while also building up military spending in his SDI program, or “Star Wars”. This would all culminate in a relative failure of his ideas with the immense debt amassed by the end of his presidency, practically eliminating the possibility of welfare programs in the United States. Within his foreign policy, Reagan was very anti-communist, yet managed to reduce tensions with the USSR’s new leader, Gorbachev, though he would also support anti-communist contras in Latin America. As funding needed to be raised for these Latin American contras, the Iran-Contra Affair came as Reagan diverted funds gained from selling Iran arms in exchange for releasing hostages, causing a temporary drop in his popularity. As his second term came to an end, George H.W. Bush, a Republican pledging for peace and democracy and no new taxes (“read my lips”, would win the election of 1988. During Bush’s presidency, the Cold War would come to an end with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the breakup of the Soviet Union; this would be accompanied by economic support to Russia and the START I & II agreements, reducing the amount of nuclear arms held by both countries. Domestically, however, Bush did very little and was forced to higher taxes due to huge federal deficits, though he did introduce unifying reform with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. In the election of 1992, Bush would not be re-elected due to dropping popularity, and Bill Clinton, a moderate democrat, would be put in place. During the early part of his first term, Clinton pushed for universal healthcare, but failed, created the Family & Medical Leave Act, and joined NAFTA to allow free trade with Canada and Mexico. His power would soon be heavily reduced with the election of 1994 filling Congress with Republicans, the House of Representatives charging Clinton with impeachment for lying under a federal oath and obstruction of justice, and public views of him worsened. This would inevitably lead to a sort of political deadlock and would force Clinton to comply with Republicans. As for foreign policy, numerous conflicts arose in previous satellite states of the USSR, garnering NATO’s assistance, somewhat worsening relations with Russia, now led by Putin, and an overall growing wealth gap was seen between developed and developing countries. American society would also inevitably change by 2000 as immigration of Hispanics and Asians grew immensely, the influx of old Americans strained Social Security, and the growth of the wealth gap led to many Americans growing up in poverty and without government support.