AP Psychology Unit 2 Summary

Introduction

• Presenter: Mr. Sin
• Focus on cognition concepts for AP Psychology
• Study guide and answer key available

Perception vs Sensation

• Perception: Interpreting sensory information
• Sensation: Raw data from sensory receptors

Processing Types

• Top-Down Processing: Uses prior knowledge to interpret information
  • Efficient but can be error-prone (e.g., proofreader's illusion)
• Bottom-Up Processing: Builds perception from the ground up
  • Used for unfamiliar or complex stimuli

Schemas and Perceptual Sets

• Schemas: Mental frameworks from past experiences
• Perceptual Sets: Quick interpretation shortcuts influenced by expectations

Influence on Perception

• Internal factors: mood, culture, expectations
• External factors: environment, profession
• Selective Attention: Focuses on specific stimuli while filtering out others
  • Cocktail Party Effect: Ability to focus on one conversation in a noisy environment

Attention Limitations

• Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice stimuli due to divided attention
• Change Blindness: Failure to notice changes in the environment

Motion Perception

• Apparent Movement: Perceived motion where there is none
  • Stroboscopic Motion: Rapid sequence of images perceived as motion
  • Phi Phenomenon: Blinking lights perceived as motion

Gestalt Principles

• How humans group elements into meaningful patterns
  • Figure and Ground: Separating object from background
  • Continuation, Closure, Similarity, Proximity, Symmetry

Depth Perception

• Binocular Cues: Use both eyes for depth (convergence and retinal disparity)
• Monocular Cues: Use one eye for depth on 2D surfaces
  • Relative Size, Interposition, Relative Height, Shading and Contour, Texture and Gradient, Linear Perspective, Motion Parallax

Perceptual Constancy

• Perception of objects as having constant qualities despite changes
  • Size, Color, Shape, Lightness Constancy

Cognition

• Encompasses all forms of knowing and awareness
• Concepts and Prototypes: Mental categories and typical examples
• Schemas: Complex frameworks that organize information
• Executive Functions: Cognitive processes for goal-directed behavior

Problem Solving

• Algorithms: Step-by-step problem solving
• Heuristics: Mental shortcuts for quick decisions
  • Representative and Availability Heuristics

Cognitive Frameworks

• Mental Sets: Rely on past strategies for new problems
• Priming: Exposure to one stimulus affects response to another
  • Repetition and Semantic Priming
• Framing: Presentation influences perception and decisions

Creativity

• Divergent Thinking: Exploring many solutions
• Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down to one solution
• Five Components of Creativity: Expertise, imaginative thinking, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, creative environment

Cognitive Biases

• Gambler's Fallacy: Mistaken belief about future probabilities
• Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing an action based on past investments

Memory

• Types: Explicit Memory, Implicit Memory, Prospective Memory
• Retention Questions: Recall, recognition, relearning
• Long-Term Potentiation: Strengthening synaptic connections

Working Memory Model

• Components: Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, Phonological Loop, Central Executive, Episodic Buffer

Multi-Store Model

• Sensory Memory > Working Memory > Long-Term Memory
• Encoding Levels: Structural, Phonemic, Semantic

Encoding Strategies

• Different types: Visual, Acoustic, Tactile, Organizational, Elaborative, Semantic Encoding
• Mnemonic Devices: Aid for memory through patterns
• Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units

Memory Storage and Retrieval

• Long-Term Memory: Unlimited capacity
• Memory Consolidation: Strengthening neural connections
• Memory Retrieval: Recall vs Recognition
• Context, Mood, State Dependent Memory

Forgetting and Interference

• Forgetting Curve: Rapid initial forgetting
• Interference: Proactive vs Retroactive Interference
• Repression and Constructive Memory: Distortion and alteration of memories

Intelligence

• General vs Multiple Abilities
• Fluid vs Crystallized Intelligence
• Fixed vs Growth Mindset

Intelligence Testing

• IQ Tests: Evolution and usage
• Psychometric Principles: Standardization, reliability, validity
• Sociocultural Impact: Biases and stereotype effects

Conclusion

• Importance of practice and active learning
• Various quizzes and resources available for further study