The modern nation of the Netherlands is a small country, approximately 40,000 square kilometers in size and home to a population of 17 million people. In contrast, the modern Republic of Indonesia is one of the largest countries in the world, rounding in at a whopping 1.9 million square kilometers in size and home to over 273 million people, making it the fourth most populated country on earth. Knowing this, a question arises. How did tiny little Holland conquer and rule over massive Indonesia for over 300 years? In this video, we will seek to answer that question, examining the strategies the Dutch used to successfully subdue the massive archipelago and the hundreds of powerful native kingdoms upon it, as well as highlighting the impact that the hydra of European capitalism had upon the ancient civilizations of the Malay world. Nusantara On the Eve of Colonisation In order to understand how the Dutch colonized Indonesia, it must first be understood that no such thing as Indonesia existed prior to Dutch rule. The modern Republic of Indonesia is located in a broader geographical region known as the Nusantara Archipelago or Malay World, a massive island chain home to over 1,300 ethnic groups and over 700 spoken languages, which in the pre-colonial era had never been fully united. Of the hundreds of polities that rose and fell in Nusantara throughout the centuries, many had grown exceptionally wealthy by mastering the narrow sea lanes that, since antiquity, had connected the celestial Empire of China to the ancient civilizations of India, Persia, Arabia and beyond. The peoples of Nusantara were more than just middlemen in this pan-continental trading network, for they were the primary suppliers of spices like mace, nutmeg, cloves and pepper, which grew primarily on the Maluku islands. Traditionally, the Malay archipelago had been dominated by the Hindu and Buddhist faiths. However, by the 15th century, Islam had been making significant inroads into the region along the maritime trade routes, with new Islamic states like the Aceh Sultanate, Malacca Sultanate and Demak Sultanate overtaking the power of the old Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire. At the dawn of European colonization, the Nusantara Archipelago was a vibrant political ecosystem of sultanates, city-states, local kingdoms and tribes that were all connected through trade, creating a mixed Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture, with the Malay language serving as a common trade tongue used by the hundreds of ethnolinguistic groups in the region. The Arrival of Europeans in Asia Throughout the Middle Ages, the elites of Christian Europe developed an insatiable taste for Nusantara spice. Despite this, the only Europeans who had ever stepped foot upon the distant tropical lands from which their aromatic treasures came were exceptionally well-traveled adventurers like Odoric of Pordenone and a certain Marco Polo. Indeed, Europe had no direct trade links with the islands upon which they grew. Instead, the continent’s primary spice hookup came through the Islamic Empires of the Middle East, which dominated the overland spice routes that linked Asia to Europe. By the late 15th century, the most powerful of these Islamic states was the Ottoman Empire, which exploited its domination of the spice routes to its political and economic advantage. This state of affairs was economically unsustainable. But Europe was hooked, so rather than kick the habit, they began looking for a new way to get their fix. In this, it was the small Kingdom of Portugal that became the main trailblazer. In the year 1497, the Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama set out from the port of Lisbon with four ships and 170 men, embarking on one of the most seminal journeys in world history. Sailing an arduous and mind-boggling 24,000 miles by way of the treacherous Cape of Good Hope, they reached the Indian port of Calicut a year later. Da Gama's discovery of the sea route to India created a direct line between Europe and the maritime spice trade, and opened the way for an age of global imperialism. Within a decade, the Portuguese began rapidly expanding their colonial empire, making their entry into the Malay world in 1509 when they made contact with the Sultan of Malacca. By 1511, a Portuguese armada led by one Alfonso de Albuquerque had deposed the Sultan, destroyed his Sultanate, and annexed the titular port city of Malacca into the Portuguese Empire. Before long, the Portuguese were joined in Asia by their Iberian cousins, the Spanish, who began colonizing the islands of what are now the Philippines. In 1580, the Kingdoms of Spain and Portugal were united under the Iberian Union and began cooperating in their colonial ventures. By the end of the 1500s, the wealth generated by Spain and Portugal’s overseas colonies had made them by far the wealthiest Kingdoms in Christendom. The Arrival of the Dutch Into Southeast Asia While the Spanish and Portuguese were planting their flags across the known world, their holdings back home in Europe were becoming increasingly mired in religious war, for Protestant Christianity was on the rise across the continent, challenging the traditional authority of the Catholic Church. One region where Protestantism was particularly strong was the Netherlands, a territory ruled by the Habsburg dynasty of Spain. In 1566, the Protestant Dutch rose up in revolt against their Catholic Spanish overlords, successfully throwing off the Iberian yoke and establishing the independent Dutch Republic in 1588. Aware of the incredible wealth their Iberian enemies were extracting from their colonies across the endless oceans, the Dutch set out on a mission to find and usurp the secret Catholic Empire in the east. In 1595, four ships set out from the Dutch port of Texel and followed in Vasco de Gama’s footsteps on an oceangoing odyssey towards the heretofore mythical Spice Islands, reaching the Banten Sultanate on the island of Java in 1597. Unfortunately for the Dutch, they were quickly intercepted by the Portuguese, who coerced the locals into forcing the Hollanders to depart. Nevertheless, the lowlanders were undeterred, sending out a second fleet a year later. This one also made landfall in the Banten Sultanate, but this time, there were no Portuguese to chase them off. The Dutch ships returned to the Netherlands with three boatloads worth of priceless nutmeg, mace, cinnamon and cloves. The expedition was a stunning commercial success, generating a four hundred percent payoff for its investors and convincing the merchant houses of the Netherlands to throw their full financial support into creating a vast overseas Empire that could muscle the Catholics out of Asia and replace them as the primary supplier of spice to Europe. The key word here is ‘investors’ because, initially, the Dutch colonial empire was not built by the Dutch Republic itself but by private venture capitalists. Originally, these investors came from various different trading companies. However, by 1602, these ‘voorcompagnies’ had combined into a single mega company known as the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie, or VOC, known in English as the Dutch East India Company. One of the first stock-joint companies in the world, the VOC was, on paper, a private corporation. However, it operated more like a sovereign nation, making treaties with local rulers, waging wars, minting its own coins, and establishing its own colonies. The leader of the VOC, known as the ‘Governor-General of the East Indies’, operated less like a CEO and more like a sovereign ruler. Throughout the next 200 or so years, this hydra of capitalism would generate immeasurable wealth for its shareholders and untold suffering upon hundreds of thousands of native Nusantarans as they fought against its exploitative policies. Within only a few years of its founding, Dutch ships had become a regular presence in the Malay World. In 1605, the VOC established one of its first territorial footholds in Nusantara when they allied with the Sultanate of Ternate against the Portuguese and seized the Portuguese fort on the island of Ambon. From there, the Dutch East India Company continued to expand. The key regions in which the Dutch concentrated their colonial efforts were the Maluku islands, where the spices were grown, and the port cities of Java and Malacca, which controlled the sea lanes through which the spices flowed. In 1619, a trade dispute with the Sultanate of Banten escalated into war, and Governor-General Jan Pieterszoon Coen seized the west Javanese port city of Jayakarta. Jayakarta was subsequently renamed Batavia and became the VOC’s main company headquarters in the East Indies. In 1628, Sultan Agung of Mataram laid siege to Batavia, but his formidable army of over 15,000 men was plagued by logistical issues, which the VOC exploited to force a retreat. Thirteen years later, in 1641, the VOC captured Portuguese Malacca. The Spanish and Portuguese were not the VOC’s only European rivals in the east. The Hollanders also butted heads with the English, who had entered Asia around the same time they had. Back home, the Dutch and English were protestant allies against the Catholic Iberians, but here on the far side of the world, they were commercial rivals. Throughout the 17th century, disputes between the Dutch and English over trade deals and overseas colonies escalated into three wars in 1652, 1665, and 1672, respectively. The second of these Anglo-Dutch wars ended in an exchange of colonial territories. The English rescinded their claim on the nutmeg-producing island of Pulau Run and handed it over to the Dutch. In return, the Dutch had to relinquish one of their colonies in far away North America. Naturally, this deal was immensely favourable to the Dutch. They’d secured the nutmeg! Surely, they’d never regret giving away the, uh… island of Manhattan! The Dutch Establish a Spice Monopoly Throughout the 17th century, the VOC’s main goal was not territorial expansion, but economic domination. Content with their small footholds in Java, Malacca, and the Malukus, the VOC focused its efforts on monopolizing the production and movement of spices in the region. Naturally, the natives of Nusantara were none too keen on letting the Dutch dictate how they lived, sailed and traded in their own native waters. Consequently, the Dutch made liberal use of exploitation, coercion and widespread violence to make the natives fall in line with the VOC’s commercial interests. One of the earliest examples of this occurred in 1621 on the Banda islands, where the native Bandanese were regularly thwarting the Hollanders’ attempts to monopolize the cultivation and sale of nutmeg. Realizing they did not have the manpower to stop the Bandanese from quote-unquote ‘smuggling’ nutmeg off their islands, Governor General Coen’s solution was simple: genocide. The small population of native Bandanese was slaughtered, and their islands were repopulated by slaves, native labourers, and others who were considered loyal to the VOC and its production demands. When the Dutch attempted to impose a monopoly on the production of cloves on Ambon, they faced resistance from the native Ambonese, who rose up against the VOC in the year 1643 under the leadership of a former VOC collaborator named Kakiali. This rebellion took three years to put down, but by 1646, the Ambonese were crushed. Thus, the Company had secured a monopoly over the production of cloves in Ambon but not a monopoly on the clove market as a whole, as the spice was still widely cultivated on islands controlled by the Ternate Sultanate. This changed in 1650 when King Mandar Syah of Ternate was deposed in a palace coup. Seeing an opportunity, the VOC swept in, offering to help restore King Mandar Syah to his throne if he agreed to destroy all the clove trees in Ternate, which the King had no choice but to agree to. With nutmeg and clove production monopolized, the next spice to seize control over was pepper. In this, the VOC targeted the Jambi Sultanate, which had long been a major hub of the pepper trade. From 1664, VOC warships blockaded the harbour of Jambi, cutting the Sultanate off from its traditional trading partners in Thailand and China. Jambi resisted this Dutch shakedown, but it was unfortunately also embroiled in a war with the neighbouring Johor Sultanate. The Dutch exploited this rivalry to slowly weaken Jambi, swooping in to arrest its Sultan in 1688 and turn him into a puppet who served the VOC’s commercial interests. By the second half of the 17th century, the most significant opponent against VOC commercial hegemony was the Sultanate of Gowa. Possessed of a mighty military and navy, the Dutch did not have the means to subdue Gowa through conventional warfare. Instead, they exploited the cracks within Gowa’s ship of state, finding an exiled vassal prince from the region named Arung Palakka and convincing him to return to his homeland and incite a rebellion against the Gowa throne. The Dutch took advantage of the chaos left in Arung Palakka’s wake to destroy Gowa’s fleet and force the Sultan to sign a treaty in 1667 that made him economically subservient to the Company. In 1674, the Dutch exploited another rebellion, this time in the Mataram Sultanate. There, the mighty Sultan Agung died, and the majority of his vassals rose up in revolt against his violent and incompetent son. Subsequently, the East India Company swept in, helping the incumbent new Sultan crush his rebellion in exchange for his guaranteed adherence to the Company’s spice monopoly. In 1682, the VOC used similar tactics to de-fang another hub of the pepper trade, the Sultanate of Banten. By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch hydra of capitalism had sunk its fangs deep into the veins of the ancient Malay world. Local rulers were forced to dance to the Company’s tune, while spices which for millenia had flowed freely along the maritime silk road had been completely monopolized, produced exclusively on VOC plantations where slaves and indentured labourers toiled away in terrible conditions to produce the cash crops that fattened their European masters’ pockets. Native Tactics in Resisting the Dutch Let us now step out from the march of time and provide a critical examination of the Dutch East India Company’s colonial strategies. A common perception of the age of colonization is that the Europeans conquered the world by virtue of their vastly superior guns, cannons and naval technology. However, military technology was only a small part of the story. The Dutch ships and Dutch cannon of the 17th century were certainly formidable, but they did not give the Hollanders a game-breaking technological or military advantage against the natives. Indeed, the seagoing peoples of the Malay world were just as skilled at shipbuilding, sailing and navigation as the Europeans were. Moreover, they had had access to firearms since the 13th century, when the Mongols had introduced gunpowder technology to their islands. Furthermore, the natives were not technologically stagnant, with many local states rapidly and successfully innovating in response to the Dutch threat. For example, by the mid-1600s, the Sultanate of Banten had hired English consultants to help them build a modern European-style trading fleet while the Javanese were reversing engineering European weapons and producing their own flintlocks, mortars, bayonets and grenades. Thus, the Dutch did not succeed in Nusantara through firepower alone, but through shrewd politicking. The VOC played the game of thrones well, inserting themselves into local wars, meddling in internal dynastic struggles, and inciting rebellions, always supporting whichever side would sign away bits and pieces of their kingdom’s economic sovereignty in exchange for Dutch support. 18th - 20th Century - Dutch Territorial Expansion By the dawn of the 18th century, things had begun to change. By then, the Dutch had once again pulled ahead of the Malay world in the arms race while decades of slow political encroachment had rendered several once-mighty indigenous Kingdoms functionally toothless, making them vulnerable to annexation. Throughout the 1700s, the VOC slowly shifted its focus from economic exploitation to direct territorial conquest. In 1752, a rebellion arose in Banten against the Sultan due to his dependence on the Dutch. The Dutch put down this rebellion then used it as a pretext to turn the Banten Sultanate into a vassal state as a prelude to abolishing it entirely in 1813. The neighbouring Mataram Sultanate met a very similar fate, coming to an end in the year 1755. In 1780, the same story repeated itself in the Sultanate of Tidore in the northern Malukus, where the local elites rose up against their Sultan in protest against Dutch interference, only for the Dutch to quash the unrest and use it as a pretext to turn Tidore into a vassal state. In doing so, the Dutch triggered a massive rebellion led by an exiled son of the Sultan, a man named Nuku. In modern Indonesia, Nuku is commemorated as a pahlawan nasional, a national hero, and it is easy to see why. He achieved many unlikely victories against the Hollanders, even managing to seize the throne of the Tidore Sultanate and restore its independence. The Dutch never managed to subdue Nuku. It was only five years after his death in 1810, when his Sultanate was ruled by his far less capable successor, that Tidore was finally subjugated with the help of the neighbouring Ternate Sultanate, which itself had long since become a Dutch vassal. On the cusp of the 19th century, the colonial status quo changed once more, because the VOC had a problem… it was going bankrupt. The reasons for this were manyfold. For one thing, the spice trade had declined significantly by the 1800s. Nutmeg and cloves were out; textiles, coffee and tea were in. In this, the British East India Company, which was currently colonizing vast swathes of India, was far ahead of the game. Indeed, the British, by this point, had surpassed the Dutch as the most powerful European colonial power in Asia. Back in 1780, the fourth Anglo-Dutch war had broken out, in which the British had destroyed half the VOC fleet in the East Indies. On December 31st, 1799, the final day of the 18th century, the charter of the Dutch East India Company expired, and it was not renewed. The VOC’s legacy in Indonesia is one of exploitation, enslavement, oppression and mass death. Hundreds of thousands of people died or lived their life in chains, all in service of the Company’s spice monopoly. Yet, for all that suffering, Europe’s spice craze came and went, and the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie went bankrupt anyway. After the VOC’s dissolution, its colonial territories were transferred to the Dutch Republic proper, which back home was dealing with a Corsican-artillery-officer-shaped problem. Indeed, as the Napoleonic wars swept across Europe and the Netherlands came under French occupation, the British Royal Navy seized the Dutch colonies in Nusantara but returned them in 1814 after Napoleon was forced into exile. Emerging out of the Congress of Vienna as a republic no longer but a monarchy, the newly christened United Kingdom of the Netherlands picked up where the VOC had left off. In 1824, a treaty signed between Britain and the Netherlands demarcated a line between Malaya, which would be ruled by the United Kingdom, and the Dutch East Indies, which would be ruled by Holland. The colonial border drawn in this treaty is, to this day, still the border between the modern, independent nations of Malaysia and Indonesia. Having established a stable status quo with their main colonial rival, the Dutch were able to continue expanding their colonial empire unimpeded. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the tendrils of the Netherlands spread further than ever before, seizing vast swathes of Sumatra, Borneo and the outer islands. The Palembang Sultanate was annexed in 1823, and the Jambi Sultanate in 1883. As late as 1908, Dutch troops used machine guns to overthrow the king of Klungkung, the last independent state on the island of Bali. It was only on the cusp of the Second World War that Dutch control over the Nusantara archipelago reached its final and maximum extent. Conclusion Ironically, if not for the Dutch, then the nation of Indonesia might never have come to be. Before the arrival of Europeans, the many ethnic groups of the Nusantara archipelago had been divided into their own Sultanates, city-states and tribes, which, outside of the brief height of the Majapahit Empire, had no precedent of political unity. However, by the end of the 20th century, the hundreds of unique civilizations across the outer islands had been bound together under one common struggle: the struggle against Dutch oppression. It was upon this shared experience that 20th century revolutionaries like Sukarno drew upon to rally the myriad peoples of Nusantara and lead them to freedom against their colonial masters… but that is a story for another time. More videos on the history of Indonesia are on the way. To make sure you don’t miss it, make sure you are subscribed and have pressed the bell button to see them. Please consider liking, subscribing, commenting, and sharing - it helps immensely. Recently, we have started releasing weekly patron and YouTube member exclusive content; consider joining their ranks via the link in the description or button under the video to watch these weekly videos, learn about our schedule, get early access to our videos, access our private discord, and much more. This is the Kings and Generals channel, and we will catch you on the next one.