Biology End-of-Course Review Lecture Notes

Introduction

• Purpose: Review essential content for biology EOC/state exams.
• Target Audience: Typically 9th or 10th-grade students.
• Note: This is a quick review; for deeper understanding, refer to other resources.

Basic Concepts

Matter and Organic Compounds

• Elements & Atoms: All matter is made of elements, composed of atoms.
• Organic Compounds: Contain carbon; essential for life.
  • Categories: Nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids.
  • Monomers:
    • Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides
    • Proteins: Amino acids
    • Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
    • Lipids: Fatty acids, glycerol
  • Phospholipid: Makes up cell membranes.
  • Mnemonic: Clean Later Party (Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids)

Enzymes

• Type of protein; biological catalysts.
• Important for starting reactions.
• Sensitive to temperature and pH changes.

Water

• Properties: Universal solvent, polar, has cohesion and adhesion.
• Capillary Action: Cohesion and adhesion work together against gravity.
• Surface Tension: Allows bugs/leaves to float.

Cell Biology

Cell Structure

• Cells: Basic units of life; all living things have cells.
• Cell Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer.
  • Hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails.

Cell Types

• Eukaryotic Cells: Have nucleus, membrane-bound organelles.
• Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles.

Plant vs. Animal Cells

• Plant Cells: Have cell wall, chloroplasts, large vacuole.
• Animal Cells: No cell wall, chloroplasts absent, smaller vacuoles.

Transport Mechanisms

• Simple Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration.
• Facilitated Diffusion: Needs protein channels.
• Active Transport: Movement from low to high concentration, requires energy (ATP).
• Osmosis: Water movement across a membrane.
  • Types of Solutions:
    • Isotonic
    • Hypotonic
    • Hypertonic

Metabolism

Cellular Respiration

• Occurs in mitochondria.
• Converts glucose and oxygen into ATP, CO2, and water.

Photosynthesis

• Occurs in chloroplasts.
• Converts CO2, water, and sunlight into glucose and oxygen.

Fermentation

• Anaerobic respiration; occurs without oxygen.
• Types:
  • Lactic Acid Fermentation
  • Alcoholic Fermentation

Genetics

DNA Structure and Function

• DNA: Contains genetic information.
• Organized into chromosomes.
• Replication: Semiconservative process.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA to mRNA.
• Translation: mRNA to protein.

Genetic Inheritance

• Mendelian Genetics: Dominant and recessive alleles.
• Punnett Squares: Predict genetic outcomes.

Genetic Variations

• Non-disjunction can cause conditions like Down syndrome.
• Environment can influence gene expression.

Evolution

Natural Selection

• Mechanism of evolution; "Survival of the fittest."
• Environments act as selective pressures.

Evidence for Evolution

• Fossil records, biochemical evidence, embryology.
• Cladograms: Show evolutionary relationships.

Ecology

Ecosystem Dynamics

• Biodiversity: Important for ecosystem resilience.
• Food Chains/Webs: Show energy flow; producers and consumers.

Human Impact

• Positive: Recycling, conservation efforts.
• Negative: Pollution, habitat destruction.

Conclusion

• Review other resources for comprehensive understanding.
• Best of luck on exams!