My dear comrades, good morning! Still to this day, hunger kills in the world
but as westerners, we tend to forget it, since it's been a long time
that in Europe, we were not a victim of it. And yet, Europe was also very affected in the past. So i would like to offer you today to go back together
on the Great Irish Famine of 1845-1851. A historic event,
devastating, which allows us to study the country situation at the time
and the reasons for such a disaster. Here we go for a happy episode
full of laughter of children and teddy bears. The Great Irish Famine is one of the
last great European famines of history. She resulted in 1 million
deaths and the exile of at least one more million Irish. It occurs during a
period of agricultural and industrial progress, moreover in the
the richest and most powerful State in the world at the time, the United Kingdom.
We must start by recalling that Ireland in the 19th century is totally
under British rule. It belongs in the United Kingdom, as the Act of Union,
entered into action on January 1, 1801, stipulates. However Ireland is not perfectly assimilated. Irish culture remains very different from British culture,
starting with the language, Irish Gaelic and religion, Catholic Christianity.
For the British, therefore, Ireland is in a paradoxical position, very close
geographically and an integral part of the heart of the Empire but on the other hand,
always distant and foreign. As often in disasters, we cannot
settle for a single cause. If the Great Famine was that deadly,
it is because of a combination of very particular factors. So we will try to do
an inventory of the situation before the disaster in order to disentangle the
different causes. Causes of the famine
- Economic Crisis Let's start with the beginning ! In 1845,
Ireland is in economic crisis. Paradoxically, the Napoleonic wars
and the continental blockade at the beginning of the century had been beneficial to Ireland
who saw at this time its role of agricultural exporter reinforced. We clear new
land to expand cereal crops and feed the people of Great Britain
cut off from the mainland by Napoleon Bonaparte. There is a strong demand for food,
prices increase and many Irish farmers take advantage of the situation.
But with the end of the conflicts in 1815, and the reopening of the British Isles to
European trade, competition lowers the prices. Farmers but also
Irish textile factories are suffering. Especially since in 1824, total free trade is established between Great Britain and Ireland, and English industries,
much more developed, crush the market, rapidly rushing Irish companies
towards the bottom. Only the Belfast area in the north, which skillfully converts into
flax production and invests in mechanization manages to stay competitive. The rest
of the island is forced to fall back on subsistence crops or to look for
work elsewhere. Causes of Famine
a rising demography Ireland has one of the highest birth rates
in Europe and its population is experiencing rapid growth. In the space of 50 years between 1750 and 1800, the Irish population double from 2.5 to 5 million
inhabitants. In this context of economic crisis, the
migration out of Ireland appears to much as a solution. And when I say
a lot, that's not an understatement! In the thirty years preceding the
Famine, around a million Irish emigrate in the USA. Many also join
the industrial towns of Great Britain, a few tens of thousands go to
Australia. Despite this massive leak, the 7 million inhabitants milestone is crossed
in the 1820s and when the Great Famine breaks out in 1845, the island counts
8.5 million inhabitants. Causes of Famine
a very inegalitarian social structure To this economic crisis and this demography
galloping is added a very unequal social structure. The top of Irish society is made up of about 10,000 landowners many of whom are
descendants of English and Scottish settlers from the 16th and 17th century. At that time,
the British military campaigns were accompanied by land distribution
to newcomers. These great landowners then rent to smaller tenants
plots. Then there are several sublet levels, each tenant
can itself sublet part of his plot. The poorest peasants,
called smallholders, cannot afford more than a tiny piece of land.
But they are not the worst off, because the tenants can then have the
land cultivated by agricultural workers who, themselves do not profit from the sale of the products
and receive only a low daily wage for their work. So we find at the very
bottom of the social scale between 2 and 3 million of agricultural proletarians, who often travel to sell their labor power to the best offer. These small peasants, or
one third of the population regularly need public help to get by.
They are the most fragile, the poor, who will be the hardest hit by the
Famine. Causes of famine
repeated scarcities The threat of famine already hangs over
the island since the beginning of the 19th century. Between 1800 and 1845, Ireland recorded
no less than sixteen food shortages due to bad harvests. The words "food scarcity" does not necessarily mean that there are deaths. We are talking about a
period when you do not have enough to eat, which generates a lot of stress and discomfort
and that we can notice in the stunted growth of children who experience it for
example. The central state tries to solve the problem
providing assistance to the poor in exchange for their work in camps
called “workhouses”. But the conditions there are so strict that they
remain relatively uncrowded before the Great Famine.
And, the country is still picking up from those bad years, which makes
that, despite the recurrence of these food shortage episodes, nobody is really alarmed
by the situation. Causes of famine
addiction to potato These bad harvests are the consequence of
mass adoption of the culture of potato by poor Irish peasants.
And for good reason, the potato is an extraordinary food. Its nutritional qualities
are excellent. By adding a little milk and fish
occasionally, she alone provides a diet without deficiency. And that,
needless to say it's a luxury when we are poor! Brought back from Peru by the Spanish conquerors,
it was introduced in Ireland at the end of the Sixteenth century. The simplicity of its culture
and its good yields quickly make it a staple food for the poor population.
The potato tolerates humidity, peatlands and acid soils that make up
most of the island. With a little luck and skill, one can even obtain
fifteen tonnes of potatoes per hectare. A small plot of land may therefore suffice
to feed a whole family. And again, it is a luxury that the poor avail of
willingly. In addition to these already enormous advantages,
the potato keeps very well. It starts to deteriorate from 9
months, which makes feeding more difficult only a few weeks before the news
harvest. From 1815 and the economic difficulties we have described, cereals
cultivated that are worth a little more are systematically exported to pay the
land rent, and poor peasants therefore keep the potatoes for
their sustenance. At the moment when is triggered famine in 1845, 800,000 hectares were devoted
to potatoes, i.e. 10% of the island total surface. It is enormous.
For 3 million Irish people in the 19th century, it's potato morning, noon and night. So
you can tell me: Fine by me, very good, it's even a dream, what
are they complaining about? Wait a bit more ... Causes of famine
strong political tensions To complete the picture of the situation
just before the famine, it should be noted a context of strong political tensions.
Many Irish Catholics, around 80% of the population consider themselves disadvantaged
by British rule. They ask therefore the end of the Union with Great Britain
and the return of a national parliament to Dublin. This protest takes the form of
meetings and demonstrations that bring together up to several hundred thousand
of people in the 1840s. Just before the Famine, the central government of
London therefore watches with a suspicious eye those gatherings that remain peaceful
but which threaten to take on a more violent turn if nothing is done.
In the middle of the 19th century, the country accumulated therefore several difficulties: a
galloping demographic and a strong economic slowdown, deeply rooted poverty,
recurrent food shortages due to dependency to a single staple, and finally a separatist tendency who alerts the central power. This explosive cocktail only lacks one
spark. And it's a mushroom that triggers the catastrophe. The crisis and its management In 1845, the phytophthora infestans fungus which proliferates on potato plants is spreading in Europe, probably imported from the United States. This plant disease,
commonly known as mildew causes on the continent the loss of a large part
of the harvest and a famine that must have a hundred thousand deaths, in particular
in Belgium and Prussia. But when late blight hits Ireland,
the devastation is even greater. ireland with its very humid climate offers ideal conditions for the spread of the disease. The fungus quickly proliferates and rots the precious tubers. Result, the harvest of 1845 is decimated to 40%.
But the trouble really began in 1846. Indeed, it has been said that the country has already known
many bad harvests and food shortages, without causing a disaster. This time, however, the consequences are aggravated by climatic conditions
: a drought at the beginning of summer which slows the growth of plants and then
torrential rains associated with mildew which destroy the harvest, finally, a winter
particularly rigorous. There, clearly, it is the beginning of the Great Famine.
The mildew struck a little less in 1847, but returns strongly the following two years.
the mushroom leaves almost no respite to small Irish farmers whose
plantations are wiped out for five years in a row.
From 15 million tonnes of potatoes produced in Ireland in 1844, the production
is divided by 5 in 1846. It is therefore the survival of the 3 million Irish, for who
the potato is the only menu, which is at stake. At that point, we could expect that
the authorities' response will be strong and rapid, in order to save the population. But in the
Great Famine, it is in fact mainly the crisis management, once triggered,
which proves calamitous and which precipitate many Irish to the grave.
Indeed, famines always result of a combination of natural factors such as
drought or storm, and human factors, that is to say political choices,
economic, or even wars. In the Irish case, the human factor, that is to say
the reaction is the most problematic. The responsibility of the English
was quickly pointed out after the Famine, in a context of tensions between the two islands which still endure today, to a lesser extent. Some writings
went so far as to accuse London of genocide, that is to say a planned massacre
of the Irish. The trend among historians is now reassessing the role
of the English administration, and in particular to add the responsibility of the rich
Irish farmers, not caring of the fate of their less fortunate compatriots.
Accusing them of genocide is perhaps a little strong you will tell me, but to understand
why, we must look a little closer at the measures adopted by the government
of the United Kingdom. More than potato disease,
it is above all the inability to obtain substitute foodstuffs that caused
starvation. It is recalled that the United Kingdom was the richest state in the world in
19th century and would have had no trouble to buy from other countries or to bring
of his Empire, large quantities of cereals to feed Ireland. The first winter
only, wheat is imported from India. Moreover, during the Great Famine, a
part of the Irish harvest was still exported to Great Britain, then re-imported
more expensive, after speculation. The magic of capitalism!
Let us be clear, this quantity would, most likely, not have been sufficient to stop the
Famine, but that says a lot about the lack of state intervention.
This non-intervention is even claimed by the economists of the regime. England
is indeed the cradle of the theory of free market and the government likes
to respect it scrupulously. According to him, the state is not intended to intervene
massively, for fear of hampering freedom of enterprise and harm private company. Among the British elites, also exists a fairly Malthusian conception of the situation. Thomas Malthus, economist
Briton who wrote at the beginning of the 19th century, became famous for his economic theory
on population growth. He observes that the population is growing faster than the
resources and that there is therefore a risk of overcrowding. His solution? Control
of the population and the rejection of financial aid to the poorest. In the end he considers that famine is nothing else than "nature's last resort" to
solve the human multiplication problem. In addition to this very extreme vision of the situation, English economists want
take advantage of the Famine to reorganize the land ownership system in Ireland
with its nested levels of tenants and subtenants, which they consider to be
a brake on the free market. To sum it up from the point of view of these English economists, the crisis would therefore be a consequence of the lack of rationality of the Irish and
a well-deserved punishment. And then, it should not be forgotten, the
Irish are heretics. To economic ideology, we must add a religious opposition. For some Anglicans, the majority in Great Britain, mildew
is thus akin to divine punishment against the Irish predominantly Catholic.
God would show his disapproval with this disease that proliferates in ungodly lands.
Yes. The hand of god ... It's a mushroom ... But I think we have jump the shark long ago ...
In short, we will have understood, several ideological aspects help to make the British think that it is well done for the Irish: they have too many children,
they have a completely archaic land distribution system and in addition, they are
faithful to the Pope. Which makes that in London in 1845, we were in no hurry to send
food in Ireland. With "a bit" of a paternalistic tone, they consider that a little
firmness will bring this lost people back on right path.
The London newspapers of the time go sometimes further and qualify Ireland
of "nation of beggars", guilty of "lack of foresight", Even caricaturing them on occasion
in monkeys praying to the Virgin Mary. The Irish are treated like the natives of the Empire's colonies, like the Redskins by Americans, in short, as second class subjects. When the British government finally decides to intervene, it is with the obsession not to spend too much. Massively intervening would cripple the free market and the aid provided must not be a free distribution. The British state therefore buys corn in the United States and resells it in Ireland.
The Irish who want to eat will have to buy the food put at
their disposition. The state just undertakes to maintain cost prices, that is to say
not to make profits on the back of the hungry.
And here I say, well done because that ... that it's a measure ... governments like that,
we don't see their likes anymore, it's ... it's courageous! Secondly, and in the face of the food crisis sustainability, the system changes.
There is still no question of free distributions to starving people, but
since the Irish have no more money, they will have to earn government assistance
by working in public worksites, construction of roads or bridges launched
for the occasion. In short, it is "work or die". Technically,
it is forced labor. But hey, if we can take advantage of the needy's distress
to make them work ten hours a day and develop infrastructure in the process,
why deprive ourselves? Although very modest, these measures prevent
the island, the first winter, to sink into starvation. But a change of government
in London in 1846 reshuffled the cards. These expenses are considered excessive, and the aid program
is revised downwards even as the harvest is even more disastrous. Public construction sites are maintained but so many men rush to collect the low salary
that this leads to abandonment of agricultural land. Instead of being a solution, this policy
contributes to aggravate the problem, the peasants do not plow and sow enough. It is ultimately private companies who organize free food distributions, soup kitchens. Notably the Quakers, a Protestant sect
which has among its ranks rich Irish industrialists, who takes the lead. In addition
of donating food, Quakers buy and distribute agricultural equipment,
seeds, fishing rods, which contributes to save many lives.
Faced with the ineffectiveness of its public worksites to prevent the Irish
to die en masse, the UK government changes his mind and in turn organizes
soup kitchens in 1847. But policymakers always keep in mind
that this should not encourage idleness and laziness, even though the distributed ration
remains weak. But despite this avarice of authorities, it works, and the Irish
die less. And like the harvest of 1847 is rather better, free distributions
were stopped at the end of the summer of 1847. The guys are really champions of crisis situations' management ... A new assistance law is promulgated
in the process to solve the food problems in Ireland, but again, it is not without ulterior motives. Indeed, the Poor Law, or "law on poverty
»Of 1847 conditions food aid to people who own less than one
tenth of a hectare, or 1000 m² of land. The objective: to force the tenants of the land
to give up their lease in order to obtain assistance, and at the same time promote concentration of
large estates, easier to develop for breeding, which is more profitable and
requires less labor. Unfortunately for speculators, but
especially for farmers, this often has the opposite effect. For fear of losing their land, and
the house they built on it, many families give up benefiting
food aid and let themselves be gently starve on their small plot. For
those, the state will do nothing. The others, who crowd in the workhouses
to work and obtain their daily ration, develop diseases that spread
with the promiscuity and exhaustion of the bodies: cholera, typhus, dysentery and so on. The health situation is dire at all levels, and some 300,000 Irish
die in the state's labor camps. We understand why British inaction
has been described as guilty by many historians. Expenses incurred to help
Ireland are well below actual financial capacity of the kingdom at this
time, it will be recalled, most vast empire of the planet. British authorities
did not see or did not want to see that in not intervening, they destroyed a
fertile and prosperous province. Fear of overspending was ultimately counterproductive
because the Irish economy has totally collapsed: the land was abandoned,
the nascent industry has spat and a quarter of the population is missing, dead
or exiled. Between 1845 and 1853, the government of the United Kingdom spends in total between 7 and 10 million pounds to help Ireland, a trifle
when we compare them with the 69 million of pounds engaged in the distant war
of Crimea between 1853 and 1856 to prevent Russia to gain access to the Mediterranean straits. Outcome So what is the human toll of this disaster? It's a lot we won't hide it,
but the number of victims is impeded because of census methods at the time.
We have reliable figures for the years 1841 and 1851 because the censuses were
held every ten years in the UK. Between the two, the estimates are quite
blurry. Authorities alarmed by famine in progress are looking to know the extent of the damage, but it is likely that the officials responsible for this mission have
underestimated the starved to death. Historians have therefore had to settle for
decennial census figures to which emigrants were subtracted, from whom we can
know the number fairly well thanks to registers of shipping companies. Result
: 1 million deaths between 1846 and 1851. And 1 million exiles. In six years, a quarter
of the population has disappeared, it's a demographic cataclysm. And to that, of course, we could add the dead after 1851 who contracted
diseases due to famine and patiently agonized for a few years.
Indeed, hunger is not directly responsible for more than about a tenth of deaths. The
rest of the victims succumb to the diseases that are favored by the weakening: edema,
dysentery, diarrhea, typhoid fever, cholera, typhus ... The malnourished immune defenses being much lower, undernutrition has resulted, in Ireland, in
real epidemics. Diseases spread all the better
that in the middle of the 19th century in a poor population, hygiene is fairly rudimentary,
not to say practically non-existent. The few doctors who are busy in the
middle of the disaster, still use archaic methods such as bloodletting
or even prescribe whiskey to the dying. Efficiency not guaranteed, no offense to
Jack Daniels fans ... The island's dispensaries are quickly
saturated and the central government decides to strengthen them only in 1851, when all
is already finished. To calm their hunger, the peasants throw themselves
on all the edible herbs they can find: dandelion, sorrel, nettle,
but this diet provides very little calories and even worsens cases of diarrhea
and dysentery. The Irish at the strongest time of famine have most likely resorted to
cannibalism since this is the case in all major famines, but these practices
are poorly documented, probably due to the total taboo of this practice among
the Catholics. Only a few court records mention some cannibalistic behaviors.
Obviously, Famine accelerates departures abroad. This massive emigration
is not due only to hunger, we have seen that it had already started before the famine with the
dazzling population growth. It is often to join their family abroad that the Irish were leaving during the Famine.
From 1845, migrations are such that Ireland, which had experienced an unprecedented population boom, loses inhabitants for almost a century after the Great Famine.
In total it is probably a million and a half departures that were caused by Famine.
All regions and all social classes are affected, even if the phenomenon
is particularly accentuated among poor peasants people in the South and West of the island.
But even once on board, emigrants are not at the end of their troubles. Piled up
by the thousands, they suffer from deplorable travel conditions to such an extent that on
these ships often called "coffin boats", several tens of thousands of Irish
die of the epidemics that follow them on the ocean.
Those who arrive in the cities of the Eastern coast of the United States, reform mostly Irish neighborhoods. The Irish Diaspora then becomes an important asset for this new country
which is in great need of manpower. Today it is estimated that more than 10% of
inhabitants of the United States have irish origins Another consequence of the Great Famine, the acceleration of the Irish Gaelic language's decline.
And yes, this language is mostly spoken in the southern and western regions, the
poorest and therefore those who counted the most deaths and emigrants.
The last consequence of this Famine, is a consequence which is a bit less
visible: a memory deficit, a lack of collective narrative of this tragedy. And
this lack, it is partly due to exile of the concerned populations, and the absence
of recognition by the State. The big Famine has returned to the front of the
stage with her hundred and fiftieth birthday in 1995. On this occasion, numerous historians' works have looked into the subject and renewed the debate, in particular
around the question of the English responsibility at the time.
But why this forgetfulness for generations? Maybe the people were so
shocked that they didn't even realize and that they could not realize. A
kind of PTSD on the scale of a people what? And this phenomenon
could have been accentuated by peasants dispossession of their land, to whom families' memories were attached. By adding the exile of a million inhabitants, we
understands why an oral memory of the Great Famine had a hard time building up.
Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1997 officially recognized that the government
of the United Kingdom in the 19th century did not do what is needed to stem what he has
called a "terrible human tragedy ". The government's management of the crisis
of the time still remains controversial and the many tensions between the United Kingdom
and the Republic of Ireland were revived by the memory of the Great Famine.
What to remember from this story, is that as a percentage of the population
killed, around 12%, the Irish Famine is by far the deadliest of
contemporary time, even if famines in China and in India have made, in absolute quantity,
many more victims. And we must add that the Irish Famine is not
occurred in a warlike context, which is generally the case, and that the island
was a central province of the largest and richest empire in the world at that time.
But above all, we remember that disasters are not just caused by natural elements. They are much more the consequences of bad choices, whether due to
locked ideologies and prejudices as in the Irish case or more generally
lack of protection for vulnerable populations. Since 2008 in Ireland, a day of remembrance
was instituted, it is the National Famine Commemoration Day. It intends to remind that
disasters are preventable, provided we want it. It is the end of this dramatic picture that we painted of the Irish Famine,
thanks to Lucas Pacotte for the preparation of the show and thank you all for
followed this episode. See you very soon on Nota Bene. bye !