Origins of the First World War

Long-term Causes and Tensions

• Industrialization: Led to increased wealth, urbanization, and societal inequalities.
• Nationalism and Imperialism: Ruling groups fostered nationalism and imperial pride to manage social tensions and distract the populace.
• Great Power Rivalries: Britain, France, and Russia had established empires; Germany joined the scene post-1871, causing tensions.
• Militarization and Alliances:
  • Military Buildup: Great Powers expanded military capabilities.
  • Alliances:
    • France & Russia since 1894.
    • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.
    • Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia.
• German Actions: Tested Entente resolve (Morocco Crises 1905, 1911); shift of focus to army expansion; belief that a sooner war was favorable.
• Balkan Tensions: Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia, supported Serbian independence movements, discovered Russian espionage (1913).

Immediate Causes: The July Crisis

• Assassination in Sarajevo: June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Sophie were killed by Gavrilo Princip.
• Austro-Hungarian Response: Blamed Serbia; semi-official Serbian involvement suspected but hard to prove.
• Austro-Hungarian Ultimatum: Stern demands on Serbia, largely unacceptable.

Diplomatic Actions and Escalation

• Political Reactions: Austro-Hungarian leadership pushed for war; needed German support (blank cheque).
• International Diplomacy: Calls for peace and mediation largely ignored; significant influence of military leaders.
• Mobilizations:
  • Russia initiated partial and then full mobilization.
  • Germany and France followed suit.
• Germany’s Schlieffen Plan: Required swift mobilization against France, resulting in German invasion of Luxembourg and Belgium.

Final Steps to War

• Belgian Neutrality: Germany’s violation brought Britain into the war.
• Declarations of War:
  • August 1: Germany on Russia.
  • August 2: Movement into Luxembourg; declarations against France and then Belgium.
  • August 4: Britain declared war on Germany.

Historiography and Perspectives

• Blame and Responsibility:
  • Post-war treaties blamed Central Powers.
  • Historians debate roles of various Powers.
  • Fritz Fischer: Germany had long-term plans for war.
  • Sean McMeekin: Russia's actions escalated conflict.
  • Niall Ferguson: British mistakes.
  • Christopher Clark: Sleepwalker theory; unintentional escalation.
• War Inevitability: Recent consensus suggests alliances did not mandate war; many opportunities existed to avoid conflict.
• Cultural and Military Influences: Nationalistic and militaristic mentalities framed war as a tool for change.
• Operational Pressures: Mobilization and military strategies conflicted with political intentions, accentuating the crisis.

Conclusion

The intricate web of alliances, rising militarization, nationalistic fervor, and immediate provocations led to the First World War. The July Crisis exemplified how diplomatic, social, and military miscalculations can converge into catastrophic conflict. Historians continue to analyze the multifaceted causes, with interpretations evolving over time.