Chapter 6: The Human Body Lecture

hello and welcome to chapter 6 the human body lecture of the emergency care and transportation of the sick and injured 12th edition after you complete this chapter and the related coursework you will be able to describe and apply in context the body planes topographic anatomy and the atomic position you will be able to identify basic autotomic structures and related functions and describe each body system discussing the roles of the structures within these systems and the interaction of body systems and maintaining a life support chain you will be able to discuss possible consequences of illness and injury of these structures and systems on proper functioning of the body okay so a working knowledge of anatomy is important within anatomy there&#39;s terminology so let&#39;s talk about anatomy and that&#39;s a field of study that focuses on the physical structure of a body and its systems then there&#39;s physiology so physiology examines the normal functions and actions and activities of the body and its systems then there&#39;s pathophysiology pathophysiology is the study of the functional changes that accompany a particular disease or syndrome all right so some topographic anatomy this applies to the body in the autotomic position so that everyone is referring to the body in the same way so the anatomic position is the body stands facing you arms to the side and palms forward let&#39;s talk about some planes of the body so imaginary straight lines that divide the body are body planes and there are three main areas depending on how the body is divided okay so you have the corneal and that&#39;s the frontal plane it divides the bodies front and back you have the sagittal it&#39;s a lateral plane and that divides the body&#39;s left and right side you have a mid sagittal it&#39;s a midline and it&#39;s a special type of sagittal plane where the body is cut in half leaving equal left and right halves then you have a trans axial plane and that divides the bodies top and bottom here&#39;s a great slide and it shows the different planes of the body as divided okay so from cells to systems and let&#39;s talk all the way through it so cells are the foundation of the human body cells that share a common function form tissue and groups of tissues that perform a similar or interrelated jobs form organs and then organs with similar functions work together to compromise a body system next we&#39;re going to talk about all those body systems okay so first though we&#39;re going to talk about the skeletal system we&#39;re going to talk about the anatomy of it next we&#39;ll talk about the physiology okay so the skeletal system what does it do it gives us our recognizable human form and protects vital internal organs it&#39;s made up of 206 bones and you have two major divisions you have an axial skeleton and that is basically the um the appendix area the the middle area of the body and then you have the appendicular and that comprises all the extremities okay so the axial it forms the longitudinal axis of the body from the skull down to the coccyx and it includes the skull facial bones thoracic caved and vertebrae column and then you have the appendicular like i said this comprises of the upper and lower extremities and the points at which they connect to the axial skeleton the pelvis includes portions of both the axial and appendicular skeletons okay so we talked about how the skeletal system it&#39;s it&#39;s made of bones but it&#39;s also made of joints and joints occur wherever bones come in contact ligaments are fibrous tissues that connect bone to bone and it helps to stabilize the joint then you have cartilage and that&#39;s that semi-rigid and flexible tissue that covers and cushions the ends of the bones okay you also have tendons and those attach bone to muscle you have symphysis which are joints where only slight movement is possible okay then you have the the bone ends of the joint and are held together by fibrous sacs called a joint capsule you have articular cartilage and this allows the bones of the ends of the bones to glide easily you have synovial membranes and that is the inner lining of a joint capsule it produces synovial fluid which allows the bone ends to glide over each other all right so types of joints we have ball and socket this allows rotation and bending and then we have the hinge joint and that motion is restricted to flexation and extension so bending and straightening this is a great slide it shows the ball and socket and the hinge joint so you see the shoulder is an example of that ball and socket and then the elbow and knee our hinge okay so the first um part of the skeleton we&#39;re going to talk about the skeletal system is the axial skeleton and if you remember what i said it&#39;s a the skull all the way down to the coccyx so it&#39;s the center area of the body and this consists of 28 bones first we&#39;re going to talk about the skull so it consists of 28 bones divided into three groups you have the cranium facial bones and then three small bones in the ear so the first one the cranium the cranium can be even broken down even further and that protects the brain it consists of four bones okay so you have the occipit that&#39;s that posterior portion it&#39;s the flat posterior portion then you have the temporal bones those are the lateral portions and then you have the parietal bones these are located near between the temporal and the occipit and then the frontal which is the forehead okay you also have also have facial bones and that consists of 14 different facial bones um it&#39;s upper movable jaw bone and that&#39;s the maxilla and then you have the cheekbones those are the zygomas on the lower movable portion of the jaw that&#39;s the mandible then you have the orbits those are eye sockets and they include the zygamas maxilla and the frontal bones of the cranium then you have very short bones that form the bridge of the nose the nasal bones all right so from the skull down to the axial skeleton and this is continuing on the axial skeleton okay so this consists of the spinal column consists of 33 vertebrae and it&#39;s divided into five second sections uh each section are numbered from top to bottom so let&#39;s talk about this uh we have the cervical spine and that&#39;s that neck area and i like to say we uh the numbers of the different areas are the the times that we eat uh during the day okay so the cervical spine is that neck area i say we eat at seven a.m if we get up early we&#39;re eating at seven okay seven a.m so there&#39;s seven vertebrae in that cervical spine then you have the thoracic spine that consists of 12 vertebrae so we&#39;re going to eat lunch at noon so we got 12 vertebrae then we have the lumbar spine and that&#39;s that lower back area and we we eat dinner at five and then maybe we have a nine o&#39;clock snack all right so nine pm snack and that&#39;s the sacrum that&#39;s the back wall of the pelvis it consists of five fused vertebrae and the the um sacrum and the coccyx which is the tailbone that is uh four and i put those together to do nine because those are fused right so fused um you have the coccyx that&#39;s fused okay uh the vertebrae are connected by ligaments and are protected by the intervertebral discs okay all right so when we talk about the axial skeleton we need to talk about the thorax and the thorax is formed by the 12 thoracic vertebrae at noon were eaten and they formed 12 ribs and so those the thorax is formed onto that thoracic area and you could remember it by the name but there&#39;s a thoracic cavity and this thoracic cavity contains very important stuff okay so we um inside the the ribs it basically is the protection for the heart lungs esophagus and great vessels okay um it is the midline of the chest and um is the sternum which is made up by the mandebrum body and the zyphoid process all right and then you have the appendicular skeleton so this is all the appendances i say it&#39;s the arms legs and their connection points and the pelvis and it includes joints upper extremity pelvis and the lower extremity okay the appendicular skeleton in the upper extremities extend from the pectoral girdle to the fingertips here&#39;s a real good photo of that it&#39;s a shoulder girdle where the clavicle scapula and humerus all come together right there and that&#39;s that shoulder girdle and then you have the arms you have the humerus and that&#39;s a supporting bone then the forearms and that consists of the radius and ulna then the radius lies on the lateral aspect or the thumb side and that&#39;s where you take that radial pulse then you have the ulna the all nose on the medial or the little finger side okay then once you get into the wrist super easy to remember you have modified ball and socket and you could figure that out by how you can move your your wrist and it&#39;s formed by the ends of the radius and alma and the wrist bones okay then you have five metacarpals and they extend two uh from the carpals and make up the hand and the fingers are composed of phalanges okay so metacarpals uh phalanges so carpals metacarpals phalanges all right the pelvic girdle and that consists of two large hip bones the sacrum and the coccyx and each coxa is formed and fused by of the iip is what i usually say the ilium ischium and puvis pubis all right the pubic symphysis is cartilage that joins the left and right pubic bones and limits movement between the bones then moving down to the lower extremities you have the femur and the femur is the longest and one of the strongest bones in the body the femoral head connects to the pelvic girdle by a ball and socket joint okay then you have the greater and lesser tricanters and they serve as anchor points for the major muscles of the thigh the knee is a hinged joint and it connects the femur to the bones of the lower leg and the lower leg bones are the tibia amphibia all right then you have the ankle and foot the foot comprises of the tarsals metatarsals and phalanges so instead of the hand the hands the carpals metacarpals the foot you have the tarsals metatarsals and phalanges so easy way to remember that then you have the distal ends of the tibia and the phibia they articulate with the talus and they form the ankle all right here&#39;s a good photo of the foot and we&#39;re gonna talk a little bit about that so the foot they contain seven talus bones all right so there&#39;s seven and um there we go and the talus and the calculus calculus are the largest bones and the the talus joint with the distal tibia and phibia to form the ankle joint and there&#39;s five metatarsal bones form the substance of the foot so the plantar surface or the bottom of the foot and then you have the dorsum the top of the foot and you have five toes formed by 14 phalanges two phalanges and the big toe and three phalanges in each of the smaller toes all right so the skeletal systems physiology so we&#39;re going to talk a little bit about that and how that works so the skeletal system gives the body its shape it protects fragile organs allows for movement stores calcium and helps create blood cells and the musculoskeletal system provides form upright posture movement protection and vital internal organs okay so let&#39;s talk about this there&#39;s three types of muscular or of muscles and that&#39;s the skeletal smooth and cardiac okay so the skeletal system attaches to the bones of the skeleton and forms the major muscle mass of the body and this is known as voluntary muscle because it&#39;s under direct voluntary control of the brain so the skeletal muscle you you&#39;re able to pick stuff up and put stuff down that&#39;s how i think of it okay the smooth muscle and cardiac muscle though they do not require constant thought they are said to be involuntary all right so smooth muscle is found within the blood vessels and intestines and cardiac muscle well where is that found you got it that&#39;s found in the heart so this figure shows the major muscles of the human body so let&#39;s talk a little bit about the muscular skeletal system and what it does so it contracts uh contraction and relaxation of the skeletal system make it possible to move and manipulate the environment a byproduct of the skeletal system is heat and when you get cold you shiver that&#39;s an involuntary shake of the muscles to produce heat another function of muscles is to protect the structures under them okay all right so moving right through the systems now we&#39;re already into the respiratory system so let&#39;s talk about the anatomy you have the respiratory system and it&#39;s responsible for breathing or respiration and exchange of oxygen carbon dioxide within the lungs the respiratory system is divided into the upper respiratory system in the lower respiratory system so the upper system is consists of the nose mouth tongue jaw and larynx and so that&#39;s the dividing spot the layer next don&#39;t forget that and that divides the upper and lower it is in the upper all right and then we&#39;re still talking about the upper we have the pharynx the trachea and the epiglottis okay then you have the lower airway so you have the thyroid cartilage that&#39;s the adam&#39;s apple um that forms the anterior part of the larynx and then you have the cricoid cartilage you have the cricoid thyroid membrane then you have the trachea below the cricoid cartilage and the trachea ends at the corona and it divides into the right and left main stem bronchi which enter the lungs and branch into even even smaller airways at the lungs you have two lungs they&#39;re held into place by the trachea and then the artery and veins and you have pulmonary ligaments okay so each lung is divided into two into lobes the right one has three so the right lung has three and upper middle and lower and then the left has two just an upper and lower each lung is divided into lobes which i just talked about but within the lobes are bronchi and bronchiolis and that which end at the alveoli okay so the alveoli that&#39;s where the magic happens that&#39;s uh that&#39;s the gas exchange and where what exchanges is oxygen in carbon dioxide all right so let&#39;s talk about some mechanisms that allow us to breathe okay so you have the pleura so there&#39;s a visceral pleura and the visceral pleura that covers the lungs then you have the parenteal pleura and that lies the chest wall okay so a thin layer of fluid helps them facilitate movement of the lungs okay and then you have the pleural space and that is a potential space between two pleura between the two pleura okay and this is a good figure it shows the structure of the lungs and what we just talked about so a little bit more we&#39;re going to talk about the muscles of breathing so the diaphragm is a primary muscle of breathing this contains voluntary and involuntary muscle okay so it has cervical muscles intercostal muscles abdominal muscles and pectoral muscles also help us aid in breathing the big one though is the diaphragm so let&#39;s talk about inhalation when we inhale the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract and this makes a large space in that thoracic cage and because there is that large space in that cage the thoracic cavity decreases and the lungs fill so negative pressure ventilation because the diaphragm does contract this is an active part of the respiratory cycle we say that it takes energy to do okay with exhalation though it&#39;s passive and it&#39;s a passive portion and the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles basically relax and when that happens the the thoracic cavity returns to its normal shape and volume and air just flows out that&#39;s passive no energy involved all right so let&#39;s talk about the physiology of the respiratory system so the respiratory system&#39;s function is to provide the body with oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide ventilation and respiration are two separate yet interdependent functions of the respiratory system okay so ventilation is the movement of air between the lungs and the environment so think about when you ventilate somebody with a bag valve mask that&#39;s basically what you&#39;re doing and then respiration that of course is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and in the tissues of the body so let&#39;s talk about respiration oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the membrane between the capillaries and the alveoli via diffusion so what is diffusion you say diffusion is the passive process in which molecules move from one area with the higher concentration of that molecule to an area of a lower concentration okay so when we talk about breathing there is a chemical control for it what happens is the brain stem controls breathing by monitoring levels of carbon dioxide in the blood and spinal fluid all right so breathing is automatically controlled in the level of carbon dioxide or oxygen in the arterial blood and if it&#39;s too high or too low so breathing occurs as a result of buildup of carbon dioxide in the cerebral spinal fluid which causes the ph to decrease all right so it sounds like a lot but it&#39;s not the medulla oblongata is stimulated by the phrenic nerve and so this phrenic nerve causes the diaphragm to contract the primary reason for breathing is to lower carbon dioxide levels next to levels not to increase the oxygen level so we want to lower the carbon dioxide levels not increase the oxygen however when somebody has a increased level of carbon dioxide built up in their system for years they switched to a different drive okay so these are the chronic obstructive pulmonary patients they switch to what&#39;s called a hypoxic drive this is known as a backup system to control respiration the stimulus to breathe is from low oxygen levels okay that&#39;s the hypoxic drive the nervous system controls the breathing and so when when it when we talk about that we already mentioned the medulla oblongata and that is the responsible for initially initiating the ventilation cycle it&#39;s a primarily stimulated by high carbon dioxide levels just what we said and it helps control the rhythm of breathing the initial inspiration it sets the base pattern for respiration and sends a signal to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerve okay then we have the pons the pons has two areas which help the respirations during an emotional and physiological stress okay physical stress this helps change the depth of inspiration expiration or it could change both okay so we let&#39;s talk about ventilation there&#39;s a couple different um keywords that you should know and the first one is going to be tidal volume and so that&#39;s the amount of air that is moved in and out of the lung with a single breath okay so generally about 500 milliliters in an adult it&#39;s an inspiratory reserve volume is the deepest breath you can take after a normal breath then you have the expiratory reserve volume and that&#39;s the maximum amount of air that you can forcefully breathe out after a normal breath then you have residual volume so you have a residual amount of gas remaining in the lungs after uh exhalation then there&#39;s some dead space and this is the portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli and little to no gas exchange all right now that you&#39;ve heard all of those definitions next let&#39;s talk about minute volume okay so minute volume minute volume is basically used to assess the adequacy of ventilation and so what you do is the amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs in one minute so the minute volume is equal to the respiratory rate times the tidal volume okay so let&#39;s talk about some characteristics so we want to have a normal rate and depth normal tile volume right so we want to have a regular rhythm or pattern of inhalation and exhalation we also want to have clear audible breath sounds or both on both sides of the chest so bilateral clear audible breath sounds i&#39;m going to have regular rise and fall movement on both sides of the chest and we want to have movement of the abdomen inadequate breathing patterns though you could have labored breathing you could bring breathing slower than 12 a minute or more than 20 a minute and some additional signs is you could have muscle retractions above the clavicles between the ribs or below the rib cage somebody could look pale or have cyanotic skin they could be cool damp skin or in that tripod position okay all right so we talked about the respiratory system now we&#39;re going to talk about the circulatory system next and this is a great system the circulatory system it&#39;s also known as the cardiovascular system and is a complex arrangement of connected tubes okay so we have the our arteries our arterioles capillaries venules and veins there are two circuits so we have a systemic circulation which is the oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle through the body and back to the right atrium and then we have a pulmonary circulatory system and that carries oxygen poor blood from the right ventricle through the lungs and back to the left atrium and this figure shows the circulatory system okay so this is a good uh good photo and when you see the blue blood that&#39;s deoxygenated blood when you see red that&#39;s oxygenated the right side versus the left side okay you can&#39;t talk about the circulatory system unless you talk about the heart so that&#39;s what we&#39;re going to do next and this is a involuntary muscle it&#39;s made of cardiac muscle and that cardiac muscle is called myocardium and thank goodness it&#39;s involuntary that means we don&#39;t have to think about it to beat right and it works on basically with two paired pumps each side is divided into the left side of the muscle and that is high pressure on that left side and then you have the right side and that is a thinner muscle and that&#39;s a low pressure pump the top of the heart is called the atrium and the bottom chambers are the ventricles so to circulate the heart receives its blood from the aorta via the coronary arteries and the right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the veins of the body the oxygenated blood returns from the lungs through the pulmonary veins into the left side of the heart and is pumped into the aorta and then to the arteries of the body valves guide the blood the path of the blood through the heart okay this is a great slide it shows the right and left sides of the heart all right so you have a normal heartbeat and we want all the heartbeats to be normal and the normal rate is between 60 to 100 beats and then you have the stroke volume you&#39;ll see it written sv that&#39;s the amount of blood moved by one beat then you have the cardiac output that&#39;s co the amount of blood moved in one minute so the cardiac output equals the heart rate times the stroke volume that&#39;s how you get the cardiac output all right so a heart a heart has to have this electrical conduction in order for it to beat and that network of specialized tissue is that is capable of initiating and conducting electrical current runs through the heart so the electrical impulses begin high in the atria at the sinu sinoatrial node and this then they travel through the atrial ventricular node into the bundle of his and then move through the purkinje fibers to the ventricles this movement produces a smooth flow of electricity it&#39;s producing a coordinating pump action and if injured that electrical system the heart will not be properly okay so then let&#39;s move to the arteries the arteries they&#39;re high pressure if you cut an artery it&#39;s going to spurt and they carry blood from the heart to the body tissues this is oxygenated blood the big main one is the aorta that&#39;s the biggest tube it&#39;s the main artery and it leaves that left side of the heart and it carries oxygenated blood to the body it has many branches and these branches supply vital organs okay and so those are the vital organs you can see on the slide you have the coronary arteries the carotid hepatic renal and mesoteric arteries okay and then you have the pulmonary arteries and these the pulmonary artery is the only deoxygenated arteries in the body other than in the neonatal area so the pulmonary arteries it originates at the right ventricle then it carries oxygen poor blood back to the lungs okay so pulmonary arteries are deoxygenated then you have arteries they branch into smarter smaller arteries and then finally into arterioles and when the arterials branch into a series of increasingly smaller vessels until they connect to a vast network of capillaries and that is where the co2 exchange occurs all right your pulse is created by the forceful pumping of blood out of the left ventricle into those major arteries you could palpate most easily at the neck wrist and groin and this is going to show the major arteries of the body this slide all right so then we got down to the capillaries at the very tiny level and that&#39;s those tiny little blood vessels that connect arteries to venules oxygen and nutrients pass from the blood cells and plasma into capillaries to individual tissue cells through a thin very thin walls of capillaries capillaries allow blood to move into them one cell at a time all right so we&#39;ve gotten our oxygen into our cells now let&#39;s talk about returning from our cells and we have to talk about the veins these are the blue areas they&#39;re oxygen depleted blood and it&#39;s going back to the heart okay so they have thinner walls and arteries and are generally larger in diameter you have major veins and these major veins are the superior vena cava they carry blood returning from the heart neck shoulders and upper extremities then you have the inferior so of course just how it sounds it carries blood from the abdomen pelvis and lower extremities all right so you have systemic vascular resistance and the resistance to blood flow within the blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels of course okay all right so we have to talk about the spleen when we talk about the circulatory system it&#39;s a solid organ it&#39;s located under the rib cage on that left upper portion of the abdomen it filters worn out blood cells foreign substances and bacteria out of the blood it&#39;s highly vascular and is particularly susceptible to injury from blood trauma so and then we have to talk about the blood composition of course when we&#39;re talking about the circulatory system so it has four major things composed of plasma red blood cells white blood cells and platelets okay so the plasma that&#39;s that liquid portion of the blood it contains water proteins oxygen carbon dioxide and nitrogen of course and then some nutrients then you have the red blood cells these are the erythrocytes they contain hemoglobin and those are the little uber drivers for the oxygen okay then you have the white blood cells these are leukocytes and they play a role in the body&#39;s immune system defense and they fight the infection those are the fighters and then the platelets of course those are the partiers they all want to hang out together in the initial formation of blood clots all right so we talked about the circulatory system so let&#39;s talk about the physiology of it the blood pressure so we&#39;ll talk about that&#39;s the pressure the blood exerts against the walls of those arteries when you have the systole that&#39;s when the left ventricle of the heart contracts it pumps blood from the ventricles into the aorta then you have the diastole that&#39;s when the muscle of the ventricle relaxes the ventricle fills with blood so systolic diastolic taking the blood pressure forceful ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta is transmitted through the arteries as a pulsatile pressure wave and this can be measured with a blood pressure cuff a systolic blood pressure that&#39;s the high wave it as the heart is contracting and the diastolic that&#39;s the low point as it&#39;s relaxing it&#39;s expressed in millimeters of mercury all right normal circulation in adults it can be automatically adjusted and controlled and the perfusion that&#39;s the circulation of blood in an organ or tissue in adequate amounts to meet the current needs of the cells okay so hypoperfusion that is an inadequate blood supply to the organs tissues and cells and we call this shock so hyper perfusion is also known as shock inadequate circulation of adults so we said that it can be adjusted the system can adjust to a small amount of blood loss so what happens is the vessels are going to constrict the tubes of the body or the vessels are going to constrict and the heart is going to pump faster so with large blood loss though the adjustment might fail and the patient is going to go into shock and what happens is the mean arterial pressure can help detect shock all right so the average artillery pressure during systole and diastole and basically it&#39;s the map so the mean arterial pressure equals the cardiac output times the svr all right so functions of the blood let&#39;s talk a little bit about that and function blood fights it fights infection it transports oxygen transport carbon dioxide it controls ph it transports waste and nutrients and it also coagulates okay so we&#39;ve moved from the circulatory system now we&#39;re in the nervous system oh actually we&#39;re going to talk about the the nervous system control of the cardiovascular system and then we&#39;ll move into the nervous system so let&#39;s talk about its control on the cardiovascular system all right so we have the sympathetic nervous system and uh basically two types we have a sympathetic and a parasympathetic but the sympathetic is that fight or flight response and what happens is it sends commands to these adrenal glands that we have and when it sends that signal epi and norepi are secreted and it stimulates heart and musc in the blood vessels okay so the nervous system controls that fight or flight response so the sympathetic nervous system so the heart and blood vessels have these things called alpha adrenergic receptors and beta out adrenergic receptors and the adrenergic adrenergic means related to the adrenal glands where the epi endorphin are made the alpha adrenergic receptors are found in blood vessels and so when they&#39;re stimulated blood vessels contract but the beta the beta adrenergic receptors are found in the heart and lungs when beta-1 receptors are stimulated the heart rate and force of contraction increase and when beta-2 receptors are stimulated the bronchi of the lungs dilate okay so parasympathetic nervous system that is basically i think of paradise and this causes the heart rate to slow and beat more weakly okay so parasympathetic almost the exact opposite of what the sympathetic nervous system does so the sympathetic and parasympathetic usually are nervous systems and they balance each other all right so bear receptors sends pressure in the blood vessels it&#39;s found in the aorta and carotid bodies and stimulation it causes stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system to adjust blood pressure so it&#39;s a great tie-in to the nervous system and that&#39;s the next system we&#39;re going to talk about next and you have anatomy and physiology and of course we&#39;ll talk about that the nervous system is perhaps the most complex organ system in the body all right so just like the skeletal system divided into two aspects so is the um nervous system and it&#39;s it&#39;s divided into two main portions we have the central nervous system and you&#39;ll see it written c and s and that is the brain and the spinal cord almost just like the um the skeletal system right and then you have the peripheral nervous system and that&#39;s all the nerves outside that brain and spinal cord the peripheral nervous system is divided again into the somatic nervous system and that regulates voluntary control sounds a lot like muscles right so voluntary control picks stuff up puts stuff down then you have the autonomic nervous system and that controls functions that occur automatically so what are those all right so that&#39;s all the tubes in the body the smooth muscle and the cardiac right all right so let&#39;s talk about this nervous system the nervous system controls the brain there&#39;s three different parts that we&#39;re going to divide the brain into right so the cerebrum and that&#39;s the largest part of the brain surface is made up of neurons it&#39;s responsible for higher brain function and it can be divided into halves or hemispheres each hemisphere has four lobes you have the frontal the parietal occipital occipital and the temporal and if you understand or if you remember those sound very familiar it almost sounds just like the bones of the skull right so you have the frontal except for these are lobes so frontal lobe that&#39;s personality judgment planning problem solving concentration and self-awareness you have the parental nerve lobe that is um recognition and so you have the occipital lobe that deals with vision and then the temporal lobe that&#39;s taste hearing and the ability to understand words then you have a long long word the cerebellum and it&#39;s actually the tiniest part of the brain and that controls balance muscle coordination and posture that&#39;s how i think about it then we have the brain stem oh boy the brain seems very important it controls body functions necessary for life and this includes cardiac and respiratory functions and also regulation of consciousness it&#39;s comprised of the midbrain pons and medulla oblongata have the reticular activating system and this regulates consciousness all right also in the central nervous system we can&#39;t forget about the cerebral fluid the cerebral spinal fluid you&#39;ll see this written as csf and what that does is it filters out impurities and toxins it also cushions the brain and the spinal cord all right so circulation in the head we have oxygenated blood is supplied via the carotid arteries and then deoxygenated blood is drained from the head via the internal and external jugular veins all right then the spinal cord so let&#39;s talk about that that&#39;s an extension of that brain stem it leaves the skull via the form magnum and it&#39;s encased within the vertebral column it ends at the level of the second lumbar vertebrae and primary function is to transmit messages between the brain and the spinal cord and then we have the peripheral nervous system okay so we have that central nervous system now we have the peripheral and it&#39;s divided into two parts just like we talked about earlier the voluntary and involuntary we have the somatic nervous system this transmits signals from the brain to the voluntary muscles okay and then it allows for activities such as walking talking and writing then we have the autonomic nervous system these are involuntary and we talked about that that&#39;s the sympathetic and the parasympathetic remember the fight or flight or the um paradise system the relax chill okay so within this peripheral nervous system we have two types of nerves we have sensory nerves and motor nerves so the sensory nerves they carry info from the body to the cns to the central nervous system and then we have motor nerves and those motor nerves carry information from the brain to the muscles okay and now we&#39;re going to go on to the skin system or the intermegatory system okay and there are two layers of the skin and there&#39;s the epidermis and the dermis so the epidermis is the superficial layer and that&#39;s us its function is uh to seal it make it watertight it&#39;s almost like a protective covering it&#39;s composed of layers and you have the dermal layer a stratum corneal layer then the skin cells are constantly being replaced in this epidermis okay then you have the dermis it&#39;s deeper and this contains special structures of the skin the sweat glands the sebaceous glands hair follicles blood vessels and mucous membranes below the skin lies the subcutaneous tissue and that&#39;s a layer of fat that serves as an ice insulator and as an energy reservoir this is a great slide it shows a really good picture of those layers the epidermis dermis and the subcutaneous all right so the inter-migratory system the physiology so we&#39;re going to talk about the skin is the largest single organ on the body and it has three major functions what it does is it protects the body from the environment it regulates body temperature and then it transmits information from the environment to the brain okay all right so we&#39;re going to move right in we&#39;re going to go into the digestive system and what does it do so this is also called the gastrointestinal system and the components of it are the abdomen and organs and the vascular structures so the abdomen contains major organs of the digestion and excretion and quadrants are easily the easiest way to identify these areas okay and so you&#39;re going to divide it into four quadrants you have the upper right quadrant in the upper right quadrant it contains the liver gallbladder and a portion of the colon and then the upper left that contains the stomach spleen and the portion of the colon and then the right lower that contains a portion of the large intestines then the lower left that contains the descending and spin sigmoid portions of the colon the small intestines pancreas large intestines and urinary bladder lie in more than one quadrant the kidneys and pancreas lie behind the abdominal cavity and we say that that is retroperitoneal so the kidneys and pancreas are retro behind the peritoneal the abdominal cavity this is a great slide it shows those quadrants the four quadrants of the abdomen okay so we have to talk about the digestive system though um even though we&#39;ve already talked about some of the organs let&#39;s start with the beginning and that&#39;s the mouth and that consists of cheeks lips gums teeth and tongue the hard palate and soft palate the salvatore glands and uh two sets so on each side of the mouth in in the front and each ear you have saliva is approximately 98 water and 2 percent mucus and salt and organic compounds from the mouth we move into the oral pharynx and this is a tube structure that extends from the back of the mouth to the esophagus and trachea then you have the esophagus and the esophagus is the tube it&#39;s about 10 inches and it extends from the end of the pharynx to the stomach the muscles of the walls of the esophagus propel food down into the stomach then you have the stomach it&#39;s a hollow organ in that left upper quadrant it receives food stores it and produces provides for movement of the food into the bowel you have the pancreas which is retroperitoneal it is a flat solid organ that lies below and behind the liver and stomach there are two portions we have an exocrine and an endocrine so what the x-grin does is that secretes pancreatic juice and then you have the endocrine and that produces insulin and glucagon next you have the liver the liver is a large solid organ immediately behind the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant it extends into the left upper quadrant as well though because it&#39;s so big the liver has many functions and um so it filters out harmful substances it forms the factors needed for blood clotting and plasma production it stores sugar and starch for immediate use by the body for energy then it has bile duct so bile ducts connect the liver to the intestine and this uh carries bile from the liver to the gallbladder where bile is stored all right you have the small intestines in the large intestines we&#39;ll talk about those so the small ones are major hollow organs of the abdomen they produce enzymes and mucus to aid in digestive digestion and then you have the large intestine no it&#39;s a major hollow organ consisting of the sea sesum the colon in the rectum and the major function of the colon is to observe the final five to ten percent of digested food and water from the intestines and to form solid stool all right then we have the appendix that&#39;s a three to four inch long tube that opens into the first part of the intestines it&#39;s in the right lower abdomen okay so it may become easily obstructive and it inflamed or infected and that&#39;s appendicitis all right and then finally we have the rectum it&#39;s a large hollow organ adapted to hold quantities of feces until it&#39;s expelled at uh its terminal end is the anus sphincters control the escape of gases liquids and solids from that digestion tract digestion track all right so the physiology of the digestive system so digestive digestion is completed by chemical processes enzymes are added to food by the saliva glands and the stomach liver pancreas and small intestines they convert the food to basic sugars fatty acids and amino acids these basic products of digestion are carried across the wall of the intestines to the liver and process further and stored or transported to the heart they are circulated via the blood throughout the body all right so moving right along now we&#39;re in the lymphatic system and this little system is not talked about that much but it&#39;s super important and the elements of the lymphatic system are the spleen lymph nodes lymph lymph vessels the thymus gland and there&#39;s also other components okay and it supports that circulatory and immune system so lymph is a thin straw colored fluid that carries oxygen nutrients and hormones to the cells and waste products of metabolism away from the cells to be excreted all right so lymph vessels form a network throughout the body that serves as an auxiliary to the circulatory system and lymph nodes are tiny oval shaped structures that filter lip alright so they help rid the body of toxins and other harmful materials now we have the endocrine system okay so the endocrine system is a complex message and control system that integrates many body functions endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream and each endocrine gland produces one or more hormones so each hormone has a specific effect on an organ or tissue or a process the brain controls the release of hormones this system is primarily and has a secondary feedback loop to keep the body in balance okay excessive or deficiencies and hormones can cause disease processes such as diabetes next we&#39;re going to talk about the urinary system so the anatomy and physiology so the urinary system controls the discharge of waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys the main functions of this system are to control fluid balance filter and eliminate waste and to control the ph the kidneys are two solid organs they lie in that retroperitoneal space with the pancreas they rid the blood of toxic waste products and control the balance of water and salt the ureters pass from each kidney to the drain into the urinary bladder and the urinary bladder is located immediately behind that pubic symphysis in the pelvic cavity all right then you have the genital system so we&#39;re going to move right through the general system controls the reproductive processes by which life is created so the male reproductive system consists of the testes epididymis vast differential prostate gland seminal vessels and penis it lies outside the pelvic cavity and except for the prostate gland and the seminal vesicles okay so this figure shows the organs of that male reproductive system the female reproductive system consists of the ovaries fallopian tubes uterus cervix and vagina it&#39;s contained entirely within the pelvic cavitor cavity except the clitoris and labia okay and there&#39;s uh on this figure it shows the organs of the female reproductive system okay so let&#39;s talk about the life support chain and the cells are the fun the foundation of the body and we talked a little bit about that in the beginning the cells require oxygen nutrients and removal of waste so the respiratory and circulatory um are the carriers of these supplies all right and so if there&#39;s any interference cells become damaged and they die and so when cells they use oxygen to take available nutrients and they turn them into chemical energy and this is through metabolism all right so the atp or adenosine triphosphate is used for energy metabolism and storage this is an aerobic metabolism and that uses oxygen when cells switch from a to an anaerobic metabolism when oxygen is limited and so what happens in that anaerobic metabolism lactic acid is damaging a waste product of this process so then you have as lactic acid and other waste accumulate around the cells the area becomes toxic and eventually the cells can die okay so movement of oxygen and waste and nutrients occurs by diffusion and ph is critical to diffusion the body expends a large amount of energy to maintain normal ph so we&#39;ve talked about the anatomy let&#39;s talk about the pathophysiology of this a little bit so in this study of the functional changes that occur when the body reacts to disease respiratory compromise is the inability of the body to move gas effectively so this can lead to hypoxia and what hypoxia is is a decreased level of oxygen in the body or hypercarbia and that&#39;s elevated levels of carbon in the body all right so factors that might impair ventilation so think about anything that might keep ventilation from happening and this could be a blocked airway or maybe the muscles of the breathing are damaged by some type of neuromuscular disease or trauma or perhaps the airway&#39;s obstructive so maybe they&#39;re having an asthma attack or maybe it&#39;s a drug overdose or trauma to the chest well or an allergic reaction or maybe perhaps some change in atmosphere or high altitudes or impaired gas impairment of movement of gas across that cell membrane and you could also have a ventilation perfusion mismatch and so what happens is this ratio describes how much gas is moved across effectively through the lungs and how much blood is flowing around the alveoli and so a mismatch occurs when one of these two variables is abnormal so let&#39;s say there&#39;s a pulmonary emboli and that&#39;s preventing blood flow okay and so or you could have an edema so some fluid inside the alveoli that&#39;s keeping oxygen the oxygen exchange from happening or when either the ventilation or the perfusion is impacted respiratory compromise can occur okay so respiratory compromise and its effect on the body of course we talked a little bit about that what&#39;s going to happen is oxygen levels throughout the body is going to fall carbon dioxide levels are going to rise and the brain is going to detect an increase in those levels the body&#39;s increases the respiratory rate in an attempt to return the carbon dioxide levels to normal if increased respiratory rate does not occur or if it&#39;s not effective in returning those carbon dioxide levels to normal the blood will become more acidotic so what happens is blood oxygen levels will begin to fail will begin to fall and this may cause the brain to use further commands to breathe all right so then decreased oxygen levels will force cells to move from that anaerobic into that anaerobic so from move from an aerobic into the anaerobic metabolism and what occurs is shock a condition in which organs and tissues receive an inadequate flow of blood and oxygen impaired oxygen delivery causes cellular hypoxia which leads to anaerobic metabolism and that leads to a lactic acid production and then finally organ dysfunction shock is characterized into several types depending on the cause the effects of shocks on the body can be similar to the effects of respiratory compromise the level of oxygen supplied to the tissue fails cell damage in cells get engaged in anaerobic metabolism and of course we said this results in lactic acid production then you have the bearer receptors and that detects decreased blood pressure and initiates the release of epi and norepi the heart rate increases the heart beats more forcefully and then blood vessels contract and interstitial fluid moves into the capillaries when there is an adequate oxygenation cells will create energy through the anaerobic metabolism and we talked a little bit about that right and so this can result in metabolic acidosis it requires energy more energy than when you&#39;re just using glucose or fuel for fuel and ability of the blood to effectively carry oxygen to the cells there&#39;s a decreased functioning of the oxygen within the cell brain cells cannot use alternative fuels so if the supply of available glucose is dramatically decreased you have brain cells they can damage and die and so you do not want that so cellular injury up to a point may be repairable if normal tissue perfusion is restored when irreversible injury occurs no treatment will help okay all right so that concludes the lecture for the human body uh chapter six now we&#39;re just going to go through the review questions see what we learned all right when the follow which of the following is found in that retroperitoneal space oh we know this one right so which one do you guys think i think it&#39;s the kidneys the kidneys it&#39;s in the retroperitoneal space everything else is in that abdominal cavity all right so the cartilagin the cartilaginous tip of that sternum is called and we think that that is called the cyphoid process right the xiphoid process is that lower part of the sternum and we use that as an indicator for the cpr right the xiphoid process a person with bilateral both sides femur fracture has so what do we think fractured on both of his or her femurs be bilateral all right the most prominent landmark on the anterior surface of the neck and we probably didn&#39;t talk about this but that&#39;s going to be the adam&#39;s apple and adam&#39;s apple is also called the thyroid cartilage okay so the thyroid cartilage that is the prominent landmark on the anterior the front surface of the neck right and insulin is produced in the where do we think it&#39;s produced we know it&#39;s produced in the pancreas so it&#39;s uh pancreas says that solid organ and it produces insulin and digestive juices all right blank connects muscle to bone so how are we going to remember this tendons muscle to bones are the tendons ligaments are bone the bone okay all right the normal resting heart rate is in an adult is let&#39;s see i think they&#39;re gonna say it&#39;s 60 to 100. 60 to 100 anything below that is bradycardia and that is below 60 anything above it is tachycardia so that&#39;s above 100. all right the left atrium of the heart receives and we know that that&#39;s oxygenated blood from the lungs right so oxygenated from the lungs and then it pumps it out to the body that&#39;s that big huge pump on that left side all right left is oxygenated from the lungs the largest part of the brain is the so the largest part of the brain is the smallest word and that&#39;s the cerebrum right the three parts is divided cerebrian brain sum and cerebellum the largest is the cerebrum which of the following statements about red blood cells is false all right they contain iron oxygen they help fight infection or they give us our color and we know the fighters are the white blood cells so we think it&#39;s c okay so c the um is right so the white blood cells are the fighters okay well that concludes the questions for chapter 6 and thank you for listening and i hope you&#39;ve enjoyed it

hello and welcome to chapter 6 the human body lecture of the emergency care and transportation of the sick and injured 12th edition after you complete this chapter and the related coursework you will be able to describe and apply in context the body planes topographic anatomy and the atomic position you will be able to identify basic autotomic structures and related functions and describe each body system discussing the roles of the structures within these systems and the interaction of body systems and maintaining a life support chain you will be able to discuss possible consequences of illness and injury of these structures and systems on proper functioning of the body okay so a working knowledge of anatomy is important within anatomy there&amp;#39;s terminology so let&amp;#39;s talk about anatomy and that&amp;#39;s a field of study that focuses on the physical structure of a body and its systems then there&amp;#39;s physiology so physiology examines the normal functions and actions and activities of the body and its systems then there&amp;#39;s pathophysiology pathophysiology is the study of the functional changes that accompany a particular disease or syndrome all right so some topographic anatomy this applies to the body in the autotomic position so that everyone is referring to the body in the same way so the anatomic position is the body stands facing you arms to the side and palms forward let&amp;#39;s talk about some planes of the body so imaginary straight lines that divide the body are body planes and there are three main areas depending on how the body is divided okay so you have the corneal and that&amp;#39;s the frontal plane it divides the bodies front and back you have the sagittal it&amp;#39;s a lateral plane and that divides the body&amp;#39;s left and right side you have a mid sagittal it&amp;#39;s a midline and it&amp;#39;s a special type of sagittal plane where the body is cut in half leaving equal left and right halves then you have a trans axial plane and that divides the bodies top and bottom here&amp;#39;s a great slide and it shows the different planes of the body as divided okay so from cells to systems and let&amp;#39;s talk all the way through it so cells are the foundation of the human body cells that share a common function form tissue and groups of tissues that perform a similar or interrelated jobs form organs and then organs with similar functions work together to compromise a body system next we&amp;#39;re going to talk about all those body systems okay so first though we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the skeletal system we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the anatomy of it next we&amp;#39;ll talk about the physiology okay so the skeletal system what does it do it gives us our recognizable human form and protects vital internal organs it&amp;#39;s made up of 206 bones and you have two major divisions you have an axial skeleton and that is basically the um the appendix area the the middle area of the body and then you have the appendicular and that comprises all the extremities okay so the axial it forms the longitudinal axis of the body from the skull down to the coccyx and it includes the skull facial bones thoracic caved and vertebrae column and then you have the appendicular like i said this comprises of the upper and lower extremities and the points at which they connect to the axial skeleton the pelvis includes portions of both the axial and appendicular skeletons okay so we talked about how the skeletal system it&amp;#39;s it&amp;#39;s made of bones but it&amp;#39;s also made of joints and joints occur wherever bones come in contact ligaments are fibrous tissues that connect bone to bone and it helps to stabilize the joint then you have cartilage and that&amp;#39;s that semi-rigid and flexible tissue that covers and cushions the ends of the bones okay you also have tendons and those attach bone to muscle you have symphysis which are joints where only slight movement is possible okay then you have the the bone ends of the joint and are held together by fibrous sacs called a joint capsule you have articular cartilage and this allows the bones of the ends of the bones to glide easily you have synovial membranes and that is the inner lining of a joint capsule it produces synovial fluid which allows the bone ends to glide over each other all right so types of joints we have ball and socket this allows rotation and bending and then we have the hinge joint and that motion is restricted to flexation and extension so bending and straightening this is a great slide it shows the ball and socket and the hinge joint so you see the shoulder is an example of that ball and socket and then the elbow and knee our hinge okay so the first um part of the skeleton we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the skeletal system is the axial skeleton and if you remember what i said it&amp;#39;s a the skull all the way down to the coccyx so it&amp;#39;s the center area of the body and this consists of 28 bones first we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the skull so it consists of 28 bones divided into three groups you have the cranium facial bones and then three small bones in the ear so the first one the cranium the cranium can be even broken down even further and that protects the brain it consists of four bones okay so you have the occipit that&amp;#39;s that posterior portion it&amp;#39;s the flat posterior portion then you have the temporal bones those are the lateral portions and then you have the parietal bones these are located near between the temporal and the occipit and then the frontal which is the forehead okay you also have also have facial bones and that consists of 14 different facial bones um it&amp;#39;s upper movable jaw bone and that&amp;#39;s the maxilla and then you have the cheekbones those are the zygomas on the lower movable portion of the jaw that&amp;#39;s the mandible then you have the orbits those are eye sockets and they include the zygamas maxilla and the frontal bones of the cranium then you have very short bones that form the bridge of the nose the nasal bones all right so from the skull down to the axial skeleton and this is continuing on the axial skeleton okay so this consists of the spinal column consists of 33 vertebrae and it&amp;#39;s divided into five second sections uh each section are numbered from top to bottom so let&amp;#39;s talk about this uh we have the cervical spine and that&amp;#39;s that neck area and i like to say we uh the numbers of the different areas are the the times that we eat uh during the day okay so the cervical spine is that neck area i say we eat at seven a.m if we get up early we&amp;#39;re eating at seven okay seven a.m so there&amp;#39;s seven vertebrae in that cervical spine then you have the thoracic spine that consists of 12 vertebrae so we&amp;#39;re going to eat lunch at noon so we got 12 vertebrae then we have the lumbar spine and that&amp;#39;s that lower back area and we we eat dinner at five and then maybe we have a nine o&amp;#39;clock snack all right so nine pm snack and that&amp;#39;s the sacrum that&amp;#39;s the back wall of the pelvis it consists of five fused vertebrae and the the um sacrum and the coccyx which is the tailbone that is uh four and i put those together to do nine because those are fused right so fused um you have the coccyx that&amp;#39;s fused okay uh the vertebrae are connected by ligaments and are protected by the intervertebral discs okay all right so when we talk about the axial skeleton we need to talk about the thorax and the thorax is formed by the 12 thoracic vertebrae at noon were eaten and they formed 12 ribs and so those the thorax is formed onto that thoracic area and you could remember it by the name but there&amp;#39;s a thoracic cavity and this thoracic cavity contains very important stuff okay so we um inside the the ribs it basically is the protection for the heart lungs esophagus and great vessels okay um it is the midline of the chest and um is the sternum which is made up by the mandebrum body and the zyphoid process all right and then you have the appendicular skeleton so this is all the appendances i say it&amp;#39;s the arms legs and their connection points and the pelvis and it includes joints upper extremity pelvis and the lower extremity okay the appendicular skeleton in the upper extremities extend from the pectoral girdle to the fingertips here&amp;#39;s a real good photo of that it&amp;#39;s a shoulder girdle where the clavicle scapula and humerus all come together right there and that&amp;#39;s that shoulder girdle and then you have the arms you have the humerus and that&amp;#39;s a supporting bone then the forearms and that consists of the radius and ulna then the radius lies on the lateral aspect or the thumb side and that&amp;#39;s where you take that radial pulse then you have the ulna the all nose on the medial or the little finger side okay then once you get into the wrist super easy to remember you have modified ball and socket and you could figure that out by how you can move your your wrist and it&amp;#39;s formed by the ends of the radius and alma and the wrist bones okay then you have five metacarpals and they extend two uh from the carpals and make up the hand and the fingers are composed of phalanges okay so metacarpals uh phalanges so carpals metacarpals phalanges all right the pelvic girdle and that consists of two large hip bones the sacrum and the coccyx and each coxa is formed and fused by of the iip is what i usually say the ilium ischium and puvis pubis all right the pubic symphysis is cartilage that joins the left and right pubic bones and limits movement between the bones then moving down to the lower extremities you have the femur and the femur is the longest and one of the strongest bones in the body the femoral head connects to the pelvic girdle by a ball and socket joint okay then you have the greater and lesser tricanters and they serve as anchor points for the major muscles of the thigh the knee is a hinged joint and it connects the femur to the bones of the lower leg and the lower leg bones are the tibia amphibia all right then you have the ankle and foot the foot comprises of the tarsals metatarsals and phalanges so instead of the hand the hands the carpals metacarpals the foot you have the tarsals metatarsals and phalanges so easy way to remember that then you have the distal ends of the tibia and the phibia they articulate with the talus and they form the ankle all right here&amp;#39;s a good photo of the foot and we&amp;#39;re gonna talk a little bit about that so the foot they contain seven talus bones all right so there&amp;#39;s seven and um there we go and the talus and the calculus calculus are the largest bones and the the talus joint with the distal tibia and phibia to form the ankle joint and there&amp;#39;s five metatarsal bones form the substance of the foot so the plantar surface or the bottom of the foot and then you have the dorsum the top of the foot and you have five toes formed by 14 phalanges two phalanges and the big toe and three phalanges in each of the smaller toes all right so the skeletal systems physiology so we&amp;#39;re going to talk a little bit about that and how that works so the skeletal system gives the body its shape it protects fragile organs allows for movement stores calcium and helps create blood cells and the musculoskeletal system provides form upright posture movement protection and vital internal organs okay so let&amp;#39;s talk about this there&amp;#39;s three types of muscular or of muscles and that&amp;#39;s the skeletal smooth and cardiac okay so the skeletal system attaches to the bones of the skeleton and forms the major muscle mass of the body and this is known as voluntary muscle because it&amp;#39;s under direct voluntary control of the brain so the skeletal muscle you you&amp;#39;re able to pick stuff up and put stuff down that&amp;#39;s how i think of it okay the smooth muscle and cardiac muscle though they do not require constant thought they are said to be involuntary all right so smooth muscle is found within the blood vessels and intestines and cardiac muscle well where is that found you got it that&amp;#39;s found in the heart so this figure shows the major muscles of the human body so let&amp;#39;s talk a little bit about the muscular skeletal system and what it does so it contracts uh contraction and relaxation of the skeletal system make it possible to move and manipulate the environment a byproduct of the skeletal system is heat and when you get cold you shiver that&amp;#39;s an involuntary shake of the muscles to produce heat another function of muscles is to protect the structures under them okay all right so moving right through the systems now we&amp;#39;re already into the respiratory system so let&amp;#39;s talk about the anatomy you have the respiratory system and it&amp;#39;s responsible for breathing or respiration and exchange of oxygen carbon dioxide within the lungs the respiratory system is divided into the upper respiratory system in the lower respiratory system so the upper system is consists of the nose mouth tongue jaw and larynx and so that&amp;#39;s the dividing spot the layer next don&amp;#39;t forget that and that divides the upper and lower it is in the upper all right and then we&amp;#39;re still talking about the upper we have the pharynx the trachea and the epiglottis okay then you have the lower airway so you have the thyroid cartilage that&amp;#39;s the adam&amp;#39;s apple um that forms the anterior part of the larynx and then you have the cricoid cartilage you have the cricoid thyroid membrane then you have the trachea below the cricoid cartilage and the trachea ends at the corona and it divides into the right and left main stem bronchi which enter the lungs and branch into even even smaller airways at the lungs you have two lungs they&amp;#39;re held into place by the trachea and then the artery and veins and you have pulmonary ligaments okay so each lung is divided into two into lobes the right one has three so the right lung has three and upper middle and lower and then the left has two just an upper and lower each lung is divided into lobes which i just talked about but within the lobes are bronchi and bronchiolis and that which end at the alveoli okay so the alveoli that&amp;#39;s where the magic happens that&amp;#39;s uh that&amp;#39;s the gas exchange and where what exchanges is oxygen in carbon dioxide all right so let&amp;#39;s talk about some mechanisms that allow us to breathe okay so you have the pleura so there&amp;#39;s a visceral pleura and the visceral pleura that covers the lungs then you have the parenteal pleura and that lies the chest wall okay so a thin layer of fluid helps them facilitate movement of the lungs okay and then you have the pleural space and that is a potential space between two pleura between the two pleura okay and this is a good figure it shows the structure of the lungs and what we just talked about so a little bit more we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the muscles of breathing so the diaphragm is a primary muscle of breathing this contains voluntary and involuntary muscle okay so it has cervical muscles intercostal muscles abdominal muscles and pectoral muscles also help us aid in breathing the big one though is the diaphragm so let&amp;#39;s talk about inhalation when we inhale the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract and this makes a large space in that thoracic cage and because there is that large space in that cage the thoracic cavity decreases and the lungs fill so negative pressure ventilation because the diaphragm does contract this is an active part of the respiratory cycle we say that it takes energy to do okay with exhalation though it&amp;#39;s passive and it&amp;#39;s a passive portion and the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles basically relax and when that happens the the thoracic cavity returns to its normal shape and volume and air just flows out that&amp;#39;s passive no energy involved all right so let&amp;#39;s talk about the physiology of the respiratory system so the respiratory system&amp;#39;s function is to provide the body with oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide ventilation and respiration are two separate yet interdependent functions of the respiratory system okay so ventilation is the movement of air between the lungs and the environment so think about when you ventilate somebody with a bag valve mask that&amp;#39;s basically what you&amp;#39;re doing and then respiration that of course is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and in the tissues of the body so let&amp;#39;s talk about respiration oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the membrane between the capillaries and the alveoli via diffusion so what is diffusion you say diffusion is the passive process in which molecules move from one area with the higher concentration of that molecule to an area of a lower concentration okay so when we talk about breathing there is a chemical control for it what happens is the brain stem controls breathing by monitoring levels of carbon dioxide in the blood and spinal fluid all right so breathing is automatically controlled in the level of carbon dioxide or oxygen in the arterial blood and if it&amp;#39;s too high or too low so breathing occurs as a result of buildup of carbon dioxide in the cerebral spinal fluid which causes the ph to decrease all right so it sounds like a lot but it&amp;#39;s not the medulla oblongata is stimulated by the phrenic nerve and so this phrenic nerve causes the diaphragm to contract the primary reason for breathing is to lower carbon dioxide levels next to levels not to increase the oxygen level so we want to lower the carbon dioxide levels not increase the oxygen however when somebody has a increased level of carbon dioxide built up in their system for years they switched to a different drive okay so these are the chronic obstructive pulmonary patients they switch to what&amp;#39;s called a hypoxic drive this is known as a backup system to control respiration the stimulus to breathe is from low oxygen levels okay that&amp;#39;s the hypoxic drive the nervous system controls the breathing and so when when it when we talk about that we already mentioned the medulla oblongata and that is the responsible for initially initiating the ventilation cycle it&amp;#39;s a primarily stimulated by high carbon dioxide levels just what we said and it helps control the rhythm of breathing the initial inspiration it sets the base pattern for respiration and sends a signal to the diaphragm via the phrenic nerve okay then we have the pons the pons has two areas which help the respirations during an emotional and physiological stress okay physical stress this helps change the depth of inspiration expiration or it could change both okay so we let&amp;#39;s talk about ventilation there&amp;#39;s a couple different um keywords that you should know and the first one is going to be tidal volume and so that&amp;#39;s the amount of air that is moved in and out of the lung with a single breath okay so generally about 500 milliliters in an adult it&amp;#39;s an inspiratory reserve volume is the deepest breath you can take after a normal breath then you have the expiratory reserve volume and that&amp;#39;s the maximum amount of air that you can forcefully breathe out after a normal breath then you have residual volume so you have a residual amount of gas remaining in the lungs after uh exhalation then there&amp;#39;s some dead space and this is the portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli and little to no gas exchange all right now that you&amp;#39;ve heard all of those definitions next let&amp;#39;s talk about minute volume okay so minute volume minute volume is basically used to assess the adequacy of ventilation and so what you do is the amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs in one minute so the minute volume is equal to the respiratory rate times the tidal volume okay so let&amp;#39;s talk about some characteristics so we want to have a normal rate and depth normal tile volume right so we want to have a regular rhythm or pattern of inhalation and exhalation we also want to have clear audible breath sounds or both on both sides of the chest so bilateral clear audible breath sounds i&amp;#39;m going to have regular rise and fall movement on both sides of the chest and we want to have movement of the abdomen inadequate breathing patterns though you could have labored breathing you could bring breathing slower than 12 a minute or more than 20 a minute and some additional signs is you could have muscle retractions above the clavicles between the ribs or below the rib cage somebody could look pale or have cyanotic skin they could be cool damp skin or in that tripod position okay all right so we talked about the respiratory system now we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the circulatory system next and this is a great system the circulatory system it&amp;#39;s also known as the cardiovascular system and is a complex arrangement of connected tubes okay so we have the our arteries our arterioles capillaries venules and veins there are two circuits so we have a systemic circulation which is the oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle through the body and back to the right atrium and then we have a pulmonary circulatory system and that carries oxygen poor blood from the right ventricle through the lungs and back to the left atrium and this figure shows the circulatory system okay so this is a good uh good photo and when you see the blue blood that&amp;#39;s deoxygenated blood when you see red that&amp;#39;s oxygenated the right side versus the left side okay you can&amp;#39;t talk about the circulatory system unless you talk about the heart so that&amp;#39;s what we&amp;#39;re going to do next and this is a involuntary muscle it&amp;#39;s made of cardiac muscle and that cardiac muscle is called myocardium and thank goodness it&amp;#39;s involuntary that means we don&amp;#39;t have to think about it to beat right and it works on basically with two paired pumps each side is divided into the left side of the muscle and that is high pressure on that left side and then you have the right side and that is a thinner muscle and that&amp;#39;s a low pressure pump the top of the heart is called the atrium and the bottom chambers are the ventricles so to circulate the heart receives its blood from the aorta via the coronary arteries and the right side of the heart receives deoxygenated blood from the veins of the body the oxygenated blood returns from the lungs through the pulmonary veins into the left side of the heart and is pumped into the aorta and then to the arteries of the body valves guide the blood the path of the blood through the heart okay this is a great slide it shows the right and left sides of the heart all right so you have a normal heartbeat and we want all the heartbeats to be normal and the normal rate is between 60 to 100 beats and then you have the stroke volume you&amp;#39;ll see it written sv that&amp;#39;s the amount of blood moved by one beat then you have the cardiac output that&amp;#39;s co the amount of blood moved in one minute so the cardiac output equals the heart rate times the stroke volume that&amp;#39;s how you get the cardiac output all right so a heart a heart has to have this electrical conduction in order for it to beat and that network of specialized tissue is that is capable of initiating and conducting electrical current runs through the heart so the electrical impulses begin high in the atria at the sinu sinoatrial node and this then they travel through the atrial ventricular node into the bundle of his and then move through the purkinje fibers to the ventricles this movement produces a smooth flow of electricity it&amp;#39;s producing a coordinating pump action and if injured that electrical system the heart will not be properly okay so then let&amp;#39;s move to the arteries the arteries they&amp;#39;re high pressure if you cut an artery it&amp;#39;s going to spurt and they carry blood from the heart to the body tissues this is oxygenated blood the big main one is the aorta that&amp;#39;s the biggest tube it&amp;#39;s the main artery and it leaves that left side of the heart and it carries oxygenated blood to the body it has many branches and these branches supply vital organs okay and so those are the vital organs you can see on the slide you have the coronary arteries the carotid hepatic renal and mesoteric arteries okay and then you have the pulmonary arteries and these the pulmonary artery is the only deoxygenated arteries in the body other than in the neonatal area so the pulmonary arteries it originates at the right ventricle then it carries oxygen poor blood back to the lungs okay so pulmonary arteries are deoxygenated then you have arteries they branch into smarter smaller arteries and then finally into arterioles and when the arterials branch into a series of increasingly smaller vessels until they connect to a vast network of capillaries and that is where the co2 exchange occurs all right your pulse is created by the forceful pumping of blood out of the left ventricle into those major arteries you could palpate most easily at the neck wrist and groin and this is going to show the major arteries of the body this slide all right so then we got down to the capillaries at the very tiny level and that&amp;#39;s those tiny little blood vessels that connect arteries to venules oxygen and nutrients pass from the blood cells and plasma into capillaries to individual tissue cells through a thin very thin walls of capillaries capillaries allow blood to move into them one cell at a time all right so we&amp;#39;ve gotten our oxygen into our cells now let&amp;#39;s talk about returning from our cells and we have to talk about the veins these are the blue areas they&amp;#39;re oxygen depleted blood and it&amp;#39;s going back to the heart okay so they have thinner walls and arteries and are generally larger in diameter you have major veins and these major veins are the superior vena cava they carry blood returning from the heart neck shoulders and upper extremities then you have the inferior so of course just how it sounds it carries blood from the abdomen pelvis and lower extremities all right so you have systemic vascular resistance and the resistance to blood flow within the blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels of course okay all right so we have to talk about the spleen when we talk about the circulatory system it&amp;#39;s a solid organ it&amp;#39;s located under the rib cage on that left upper portion of the abdomen it filters worn out blood cells foreign substances and bacteria out of the blood it&amp;#39;s highly vascular and is particularly susceptible to injury from blood trauma so and then we have to talk about the blood composition of course when we&amp;#39;re talking about the circulatory system so it has four major things composed of plasma red blood cells white blood cells and platelets okay so the plasma that&amp;#39;s that liquid portion of the blood it contains water proteins oxygen carbon dioxide and nitrogen of course and then some nutrients then you have the red blood cells these are the erythrocytes they contain hemoglobin and those are the little uber drivers for the oxygen okay then you have the white blood cells these are leukocytes and they play a role in the body&amp;#39;s immune system defense and they fight the infection those are the fighters and then the platelets of course those are the partiers they all want to hang out together in the initial formation of blood clots all right so we talked about the circulatory system so let&amp;#39;s talk about the physiology of it the blood pressure so we&amp;#39;ll talk about that&amp;#39;s the pressure the blood exerts against the walls of those arteries when you have the systole that&amp;#39;s when the left ventricle of the heart contracts it pumps blood from the ventricles into the aorta then you have the diastole that&amp;#39;s when the muscle of the ventricle relaxes the ventricle fills with blood so systolic diastolic taking the blood pressure forceful ejection of blood from the left ventricle into the aorta is transmitted through the arteries as a pulsatile pressure wave and this can be measured with a blood pressure cuff a systolic blood pressure that&amp;#39;s the high wave it as the heart is contracting and the diastolic that&amp;#39;s the low point as it&amp;#39;s relaxing it&amp;#39;s expressed in millimeters of mercury all right normal circulation in adults it can be automatically adjusted and controlled and the perfusion that&amp;#39;s the circulation of blood in an organ or tissue in adequate amounts to meet the current needs of the cells okay so hypoperfusion that is an inadequate blood supply to the organs tissues and cells and we call this shock so hyper perfusion is also known as shock inadequate circulation of adults so we said that it can be adjusted the system can adjust to a small amount of blood loss so what happens is the vessels are going to constrict the tubes of the body or the vessels are going to constrict and the heart is going to pump faster so with large blood loss though the adjustment might fail and the patient is going to go into shock and what happens is the mean arterial pressure can help detect shock all right so the average artillery pressure during systole and diastole and basically it&amp;#39;s the map so the mean arterial pressure equals the cardiac output times the svr all right so functions of the blood let&amp;#39;s talk a little bit about that and function blood fights it fights infection it transports oxygen transport carbon dioxide it controls ph it transports waste and nutrients and it also coagulates okay so we&amp;#39;ve moved from the circulatory system now we&amp;#39;re in the nervous system oh actually we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the the nervous system control of the cardiovascular system and then we&amp;#39;ll move into the nervous system so let&amp;#39;s talk about its control on the cardiovascular system all right so we have the sympathetic nervous system and uh basically two types we have a sympathetic and a parasympathetic but the sympathetic is that fight or flight response and what happens is it sends commands to these adrenal glands that we have and when it sends that signal epi and norepi are secreted and it stimulates heart and musc in the blood vessels okay so the nervous system controls that fight or flight response so the sympathetic nervous system so the heart and blood vessels have these things called alpha adrenergic receptors and beta out adrenergic receptors and the adrenergic adrenergic means related to the adrenal glands where the epi endorphin are made the alpha adrenergic receptors are found in blood vessels and so when they&amp;#39;re stimulated blood vessels contract but the beta the beta adrenergic receptors are found in the heart and lungs when beta-1 receptors are stimulated the heart rate and force of contraction increase and when beta-2 receptors are stimulated the bronchi of the lungs dilate okay so parasympathetic nervous system that is basically i think of paradise and this causes the heart rate to slow and beat more weakly okay so parasympathetic almost the exact opposite of what the sympathetic nervous system does so the sympathetic and parasympathetic usually are nervous systems and they balance each other all right so bear receptors sends pressure in the blood vessels it&amp;#39;s found in the aorta and carotid bodies and stimulation it causes stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system to adjust blood pressure so it&amp;#39;s a great tie-in to the nervous system and that&amp;#39;s the next system we&amp;#39;re going to talk about next and you have anatomy and physiology and of course we&amp;#39;ll talk about that the nervous system is perhaps the most complex organ system in the body all right so just like the skeletal system divided into two aspects so is the um nervous system and it&amp;#39;s it&amp;#39;s divided into two main portions we have the central nervous system and you&amp;#39;ll see it written c and s and that is the brain and the spinal cord almost just like the um the skeletal system right and then you have the peripheral nervous system and that&amp;#39;s all the nerves outside that brain and spinal cord the peripheral nervous system is divided again into the somatic nervous system and that regulates voluntary control sounds a lot like muscles right so voluntary control picks stuff up puts stuff down then you have the autonomic nervous system and that controls functions that occur automatically so what are those all right so that&amp;#39;s all the tubes in the body the smooth muscle and the cardiac right all right so let&amp;#39;s talk about this nervous system the nervous system controls the brain there&amp;#39;s three different parts that we&amp;#39;re going to divide the brain into right so the cerebrum and that&amp;#39;s the largest part of the brain surface is made up of neurons it&amp;#39;s responsible for higher brain function and it can be divided into halves or hemispheres each hemisphere has four lobes you have the frontal the parietal occipital occipital and the temporal and if you understand or if you remember those sound very familiar it almost sounds just like the bones of the skull right so you have the frontal except for these are lobes so frontal lobe that&amp;#39;s personality judgment planning problem solving concentration and self-awareness you have the parental nerve lobe that is um recognition and so you have the occipital lobe that deals with vision and then the temporal lobe that&amp;#39;s taste hearing and the ability to understand words then you have a long long word the cerebellum and it&amp;#39;s actually the tiniest part of the brain and that controls balance muscle coordination and posture that&amp;#39;s how i think about it then we have the brain stem oh boy the brain seems very important it controls body functions necessary for life and this includes cardiac and respiratory functions and also regulation of consciousness it&amp;#39;s comprised of the midbrain pons and medulla oblongata have the reticular activating system and this regulates consciousness all right also in the central nervous system we can&amp;#39;t forget about the cerebral fluid the cerebral spinal fluid you&amp;#39;ll see this written as csf and what that does is it filters out impurities and toxins it also cushions the brain and the spinal cord all right so circulation in the head we have oxygenated blood is supplied via the carotid arteries and then deoxygenated blood is drained from the head via the internal and external jugular veins all right then the spinal cord so let&amp;#39;s talk about that that&amp;#39;s an extension of that brain stem it leaves the skull via the form magnum and it&amp;#39;s encased within the vertebral column it ends at the level of the second lumbar vertebrae and primary function is to transmit messages between the brain and the spinal cord and then we have the peripheral nervous system okay so we have that central nervous system now we have the peripheral and it&amp;#39;s divided into two parts just like we talked about earlier the voluntary and involuntary we have the somatic nervous system this transmits signals from the brain to the voluntary muscles okay and then it allows for activities such as walking talking and writing then we have the autonomic nervous system these are involuntary and we talked about that that&amp;#39;s the sympathetic and the parasympathetic remember the fight or flight or the um paradise system the relax chill okay so within this peripheral nervous system we have two types of nerves we have sensory nerves and motor nerves so the sensory nerves they carry info from the body to the cns to the central nervous system and then we have motor nerves and those motor nerves carry information from the brain to the muscles okay and now we&amp;#39;re going to go on to the skin system or the intermegatory system okay and there are two layers of the skin and there&amp;#39;s the epidermis and the dermis so the epidermis is the superficial layer and that&amp;#39;s us its function is uh to seal it make it watertight it&amp;#39;s almost like a protective covering it&amp;#39;s composed of layers and you have the dermal layer a stratum corneal layer then the skin cells are constantly being replaced in this epidermis okay then you have the dermis it&amp;#39;s deeper and this contains special structures of the skin the sweat glands the sebaceous glands hair follicles blood vessels and mucous membranes below the skin lies the subcutaneous tissue and that&amp;#39;s a layer of fat that serves as an ice insulator and as an energy reservoir this is a great slide it shows a really good picture of those layers the epidermis dermis and the subcutaneous all right so the inter-migratory system the physiology so we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the skin is the largest single organ on the body and it has three major functions what it does is it protects the body from the environment it regulates body temperature and then it transmits information from the environment to the brain okay all right so we&amp;#39;re going to move right in we&amp;#39;re going to go into the digestive system and what does it do so this is also called the gastrointestinal system and the components of it are the abdomen and organs and the vascular structures so the abdomen contains major organs of the digestion and excretion and quadrants are easily the easiest way to identify these areas okay and so you&amp;#39;re going to divide it into four quadrants you have the upper right quadrant in the upper right quadrant it contains the liver gallbladder and a portion of the colon and then the upper left that contains the stomach spleen and the portion of the colon and then the right lower that contains a portion of the large intestines then the lower left that contains the descending and spin sigmoid portions of the colon the small intestines pancreas large intestines and urinary bladder lie in more than one quadrant the kidneys and pancreas lie behind the abdominal cavity and we say that that is retroperitoneal so the kidneys and pancreas are retro behind the peritoneal the abdominal cavity this is a great slide it shows those quadrants the four quadrants of the abdomen okay so we have to talk about the digestive system though um even though we&amp;#39;ve already talked about some of the organs let&amp;#39;s start with the beginning and that&amp;#39;s the mouth and that consists of cheeks lips gums teeth and tongue the hard palate and soft palate the salvatore glands and uh two sets so on each side of the mouth in in the front and each ear you have saliva is approximately 98 water and 2 percent mucus and salt and organic compounds from the mouth we move into the oral pharynx and this is a tube structure that extends from the back of the mouth to the esophagus and trachea then you have the esophagus and the esophagus is the tube it&amp;#39;s about 10 inches and it extends from the end of the pharynx to the stomach the muscles of the walls of the esophagus propel food down into the stomach then you have the stomach it&amp;#39;s a hollow organ in that left upper quadrant it receives food stores it and produces provides for movement of the food into the bowel you have the pancreas which is retroperitoneal it is a flat solid organ that lies below and behind the liver and stomach there are two portions we have an exocrine and an endocrine so what the x-grin does is that secretes pancreatic juice and then you have the endocrine and that produces insulin and glucagon next you have the liver the liver is a large solid organ immediately behind the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant it extends into the left upper quadrant as well though because it&amp;#39;s so big the liver has many functions and um so it filters out harmful substances it forms the factors needed for blood clotting and plasma production it stores sugar and starch for immediate use by the body for energy then it has bile duct so bile ducts connect the liver to the intestine and this uh carries bile from the liver to the gallbladder where bile is stored all right you have the small intestines in the large intestines we&amp;#39;ll talk about those so the small ones are major hollow organs of the abdomen they produce enzymes and mucus to aid in digestive digestion and then you have the large intestine no it&amp;#39;s a major hollow organ consisting of the sea sesum the colon in the rectum and the major function of the colon is to observe the final five to ten percent of digested food and water from the intestines and to form solid stool all right then we have the appendix that&amp;#39;s a three to four inch long tube that opens into the first part of the intestines it&amp;#39;s in the right lower abdomen okay so it may become easily obstructive and it inflamed or infected and that&amp;#39;s appendicitis all right and then finally we have the rectum it&amp;#39;s a large hollow organ adapted to hold quantities of feces until it&amp;#39;s expelled at uh its terminal end is the anus sphincters control the escape of gases liquids and solids from that digestion tract digestion track all right so the physiology of the digestive system so digestive digestion is completed by chemical processes enzymes are added to food by the saliva glands and the stomach liver pancreas and small intestines they convert the food to basic sugars fatty acids and amino acids these basic products of digestion are carried across the wall of the intestines to the liver and process further and stored or transported to the heart they are circulated via the blood throughout the body all right so moving right along now we&amp;#39;re in the lymphatic system and this little system is not talked about that much but it&amp;#39;s super important and the elements of the lymphatic system are the spleen lymph nodes lymph lymph vessels the thymus gland and there&amp;#39;s also other components okay and it supports that circulatory and immune system so lymph is a thin straw colored fluid that carries oxygen nutrients and hormones to the cells and waste products of metabolism away from the cells to be excreted all right so lymph vessels form a network throughout the body that serves as an auxiliary to the circulatory system and lymph nodes are tiny oval shaped structures that filter lip alright so they help rid the body of toxins and other harmful materials now we have the endocrine system okay so the endocrine system is a complex message and control system that integrates many body functions endocrine glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream and each endocrine gland produces one or more hormones so each hormone has a specific effect on an organ or tissue or a process the brain controls the release of hormones this system is primarily and has a secondary feedback loop to keep the body in balance okay excessive or deficiencies and hormones can cause disease processes such as diabetes next we&amp;#39;re going to talk about the urinary system so the anatomy and physiology so the urinary system controls the discharge of waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys the main functions of this system are to control fluid balance filter and eliminate waste and to control the ph the kidneys are two solid organs they lie in that retroperitoneal space with the pancreas they rid the blood of toxic waste products and control the balance of water and salt the ureters pass from each kidney to the drain into the urinary bladder and the urinary bladder is located immediately behind that pubic symphysis in the pelvic cavity all right then you have the genital system so we&amp;#39;re going to move right through the general system controls the reproductive processes by which life is created so the male reproductive system consists of the testes epididymis vast differential prostate gland seminal vessels and penis it lies outside the pelvic cavity and except for the prostate gland and the seminal vesicles okay so this figure shows the organs of that male reproductive system the female reproductive system consists of the ovaries fallopian tubes uterus cervix and vagina it&amp;#39;s contained entirely within the pelvic cavitor cavity except the clitoris and labia okay and there&amp;#39;s uh on this figure it shows the organs of the female reproductive system okay so let&amp;#39;s talk about the life support chain and the cells are the fun the foundation of the body and we talked a little bit about that in the beginning the cells require oxygen nutrients and removal of waste so the respiratory and circulatory um are the carriers of these supplies all right and so if there&amp;#39;s any interference cells become damaged and they die and so when cells they use oxygen to take available nutrients and they turn them into chemical energy and this is through metabolism all right so the atp or adenosine triphosphate is used for energy metabolism and storage this is an aerobic metabolism and that uses oxygen when cells switch from a to an anaerobic metabolism when oxygen is limited and so what happens in that anaerobic metabolism lactic acid is damaging a waste product of this process so then you have as lactic acid and other waste accumulate around the cells the area becomes toxic and eventually the cells can die okay so movement of oxygen and waste and nutrients occurs by diffusion and ph is critical to diffusion the body expends a large amount of energy to maintain normal ph so we&amp;#39;ve talked about the anatomy let&amp;#39;s talk about the pathophysiology of this a little bit so in this study of the functional changes that occur when the body reacts to disease respiratory compromise is the inability of the body to move gas effectively so this can lead to hypoxia and what hypoxia is is a decreased level of oxygen in the body or hypercarbia and that&amp;#39;s elevated levels of carbon in the body all right so factors that might impair ventilation so think about anything that might keep ventilation from happening and this could be a blocked airway or maybe the muscles of the breathing are damaged by some type of neuromuscular disease or trauma or perhaps the airway&amp;#39;s obstructive so maybe they&amp;#39;re having an asthma attack or maybe it&amp;#39;s a drug overdose or trauma to the chest well or an allergic reaction or maybe perhaps some change in atmosphere or high altitudes or impaired gas impairment of movement of gas across that cell membrane and you could also have a ventilation perfusion mismatch and so what happens is this ratio describes how much gas is moved across effectively through the lungs and how much blood is flowing around the alveoli and so a mismatch occurs when one of these two variables is abnormal so let&amp;#39;s say there&amp;#39;s a pulmonary emboli and that&amp;#39;s preventing blood flow okay and so or you could have an edema so some fluid inside the alveoli that&amp;#39;s keeping oxygen the oxygen exchange from happening or when either the ventilation or the perfusion is impacted respiratory compromise can occur okay so respiratory compromise and its effect on the body of course we talked a little bit about that what&amp;#39;s going to happen is oxygen levels throughout the body is going to fall carbon dioxide levels are going to rise and the brain is going to detect an increase in those levels the body&amp;#39;s increases the respiratory rate in an attempt to return the carbon dioxide levels to normal if increased respiratory rate does not occur or if it&amp;#39;s not effective in returning those carbon dioxide levels to normal the blood will become more acidotic so what happens is blood oxygen levels will begin to fail will begin to fall and this may cause the brain to use further commands to breathe all right so then decreased oxygen levels will force cells to move from that anaerobic into that anaerobic so from move from an aerobic into the anaerobic metabolism and what occurs is shock a condition in which organs and tissues receive an inadequate flow of blood and oxygen impaired oxygen delivery causes cellular hypoxia which leads to anaerobic metabolism and that leads to a lactic acid production and then finally organ dysfunction shock is characterized into several types depending on the cause the effects of shocks on the body can be similar to the effects of respiratory compromise the level of oxygen supplied to the tissue fails cell damage in cells get engaged in anaerobic metabolism and of course we said this results in lactic acid production then you have the bearer receptors and that detects decreased blood pressure and initiates the release of epi and norepi the heart rate increases the heart beats more forcefully and then blood vessels contract and interstitial fluid moves into the capillaries when there is an adequate oxygenation cells will create energy through the anaerobic metabolism and we talked a little bit about that right and so this can result in metabolic acidosis it requires energy more energy than when you&amp;#39;re just using glucose or fuel for fuel and ability of the blood to effectively carry oxygen to the cells there&amp;#39;s a decreased functioning of the oxygen within the cell brain cells cannot use alternative fuels so if the supply of available glucose is dramatically decreased you have brain cells they can damage and die and so you do not want that so cellular injury up to a point may be repairable if normal tissue perfusion is restored when irreversible injury occurs no treatment will help okay all right so that concludes the lecture for the human body uh chapter six now we&amp;#39;re just going to go through the review questions see what we learned all right when the follow which of the following is found in that retroperitoneal space oh we know this one right so which one do you guys think i think it&amp;#39;s the kidneys the kidneys it&amp;#39;s in the retroperitoneal space everything else is in that abdominal cavity all right so the cartilagin the cartilaginous tip of that sternum is called and we think that that is called the cyphoid process right the xiphoid process is that lower part of the sternum and we use that as an indicator for the cpr right the xiphoid process a person with bilateral both sides femur fracture has so what do we think fractured on both of his or her femurs be bilateral all right the most prominent landmark on the anterior surface of the neck and we probably didn&amp;#39;t talk about this but that&amp;#39;s going to be the adam&amp;#39;s apple and adam&amp;#39;s apple is also called the thyroid cartilage okay so the thyroid cartilage that is the prominent landmark on the anterior the front surface of the neck right and insulin is produced in the where do we think it&amp;#39;s produced we know it&amp;#39;s produced in the pancreas so it&amp;#39;s uh pancreas says that solid organ and it produces insulin and digestive juices all right blank connects muscle to bone so how are we going to remember this tendons muscle to bones are the tendons ligaments are bone the bone okay all right the normal resting heart rate is in an adult is let&amp;#39;s see i think they&amp;#39;re gonna say it&amp;#39;s 60 to 100. 60 to 100 anything below that is bradycardia and that is below 60 anything above it is tachycardia so that&amp;#39;s above 100. all right the left atrium of the heart receives and we know that that&amp;#39;s oxygenated blood from the lungs right so oxygenated from the lungs and then it pumps it out to the body that&amp;#39;s that big huge pump on that left side all right left is oxygenated from the lungs the largest part of the brain is the so the largest part of the brain is the smallest word and that&amp;#39;s the cerebrum right the three parts is divided cerebrian brain sum and cerebellum the largest is the cerebrum which of the following statements about red blood cells is false all right they contain iron oxygen they help fight infection or they give us our color and we know the fighters are the white blood cells so we think it&amp;#39;s c okay so c the um is right so the white blood cells are the fighters okay well that concludes the questions for chapter 6 and thank you for listening and i hope you&amp;#39;ve enjoyed it

Transcript for:Chapter 6: The Human Body Lecture

Transcript for:
Chapter 6: The Human Body Lecture