Lecture on the History of European Science

Introduction

• Science is vital in today's society, characterized by scientific pluralism and disagreements.
• Science now spans more fields, with diverse methodologies.
• We live in a 'knowledge society' with competing interests and knowledge.
• A key question: How can science be diverse yet provide valid knowledge?

Origins of Science

• Antiquity (Circa 350 BC):
  • Birthplace at the Academy in Athens founded by Plato.
  • Plato and Aristotle, pivotal figures; major references for science.
  • Plato focused on forms/ideas as standards of measurement.
  • Aristotle disagreed, emphasizing empirical observation of nature.
• Philosophical Debate:
  • Plato vs. Aristotle on how to conceptualize and study the world.
  • This debate continues to influence scientific reasoning.

Middle Ages

• Science's Decline:
  • Post-Roman Empire, science was largely ignored or forgotten.
• Revival of Science (Circa 1150):
  • New European universities were established.
  • The Church, which dominated education, had a complex relationship with science.
  • Thomas Aquinas integrated Aristotle’s methods with religious logic.
  • Roger Bacon advocated for systematic observation and experimentation.

Renaissance and Scientific Revolution

• Re-discovery of Ancient Ideas:
  • Precipitated by inventions like the printing press.
  • Copernicus proposed heliocentrism, challenging church doctrines.
  • Aristotelian views were questioned, shifting the church's authority.
• Science as Independent Institution:
  • Growth of science in universities, courts, and laboratories.
  • Emphasis on human perspective and evidence-based research.

Enlightenment

• Developments in Science and Philosophy:
  • Science increasingly separated from metaphysics.
  • Descartes' dualism between physical and metaphysical.
  • Empiricism vs. Rationalism debate in Britain and continental Europe.
• Francis Bacon’s Inductive Method:
  • Called for empirical observation over speculative logic.
• Isaac Newton’s Contributions:
  • Groundbreaking in physics and mathematics.
  • Newton’s work fueled further philosophical debate on induction vs. deduction.

Philosophical Contributions

• David Hume:
  • Critiqued induction and emphasized limitations in our knowledge based on observations.
  • Introduced the concept of Hume’s fork: ideas vs. facts.
• Immanuel Kant:
  • Bridged rationalism and empiricism, proposing the idea of innate knowledge categories.
  • Introduced the "Copernican revolution" in philosophy.

Science in Society

• Impact on Society:
  • The Industrial Revolution was fueled by scientific discoveries.
  • Enlightenment values of freedom and free thinking influenced science’s role in society.

Conclusion

• Science has evolved from its origins, through religious domination, to an independent institution.
• The philosophical foundation of science continues to be debated.
• Science increasingly influences societal structures and continues to evolve.