Hey, Atsuhiko Nakata here. We're back with the fourth video in our eight-part world history series, focusing on ancient and medieval China. We've covered Europe, the Middle East, and India, and now we're wrapping up this era with China. After this, we'll dive into the Age of Exploration, which led to the interconnected world of the early modern period. Then, we'll tackle imperialism, the World Wars, the clash between the West and the East, and finally, the modern era. So, this is the fourth block in our eight-block world history series. China is the closest major power to Japan, and its journey to the modern era is packed with valuable lessons. I've left some of the India content on the board because the timelines sometimes overlap, and it's helpful to see the comparisons. But let me tell you, China's history is even denser than India's. It's incredibly rich. So, even though we'll be moving quickly, I think you'll find it fascinating. Let's start with the four ancient civilizations: Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, Egypt, and China. While the first three developed around rivers, China had two distinct civilizations: the Yangtze River Civilization and the Yellow River Civilization. Humans tend to thrive in groups, and climate change drove them to settle near rivers for agriculture. These settlements eventually evolved into states and nations. The Yangtze River flows across southern China, while the Yellow River cuts across the north. Hence, we have the Yangtze River Civilization and the Yellow River Civilization. Each civilization developed its own writing system. Mesopotamia had cuneiform, used to inscribe the Code of Hammurabi. The Indus script remains undeciphered. The ability to record language was humanity's first innovation, allowing us to pass down knowledge and create history. In China, they used oracle bone script, etched onto tortoise shells and bones. This ancient period was all about divination. They'd burn turtle shells or bones, interpret the cracks, and predict things like the weather. It sounds ridiculous now, but these practices were important back then. The characters inscribed on these shells and bones are what we call oracle bone script. "Yi" as they were called, grew larger and larger, becoming "dayi," or great villages. These great villages eventually formed states and dynasties. The first of these was the Shang Dynasty. Now, this is where ancient China gets wild. Both the Shang and the following Zhou Dynasty collapsed due to the same reason: women. The Shang king, Zhou, was infatuated with a stunning beauty named Daji. They indulged in extravagant feasts, creating pools of wine and hanging meat from trees. It sounds absurd, but it was a display of immense wealth. This overindulgence and obsession with Daji led Zhou to neglect his duties, sparking a rebellion. This story has been adapted into various forms of media, like the manga Fengshen Yanyi. It depicts the tyrannical King Zhou, driven to madness by Daji, causing chaos in the kingdom. The next dynasty, the Zhou, also fell victim to the allure of women. Power attracts everything: wealth, beautiful women, you name it. When someone has it all, it's hard to stay grounded. This was proven early on. During the reign of King Wu of Zhou, he too became infatuated with a woman, leading to the downfall of the dynasty. This is where the term "beauty that topples a nation," comes from. It refers to a woman so captivating that she can bring down an entire kingdom. Terms like "wine pools and meat forests" are ancient Chinese idioms that have survived to this day due to their powerful imagery. The theme of emperors being led astray by women repeats itself throughout Chinese history for thousands of years. But humanity does make some progress, and that's what we'll explore next. What happens after a dynasty collapses? The next era is the Warring States period, specifically the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period, combined as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period. This eventually leads to the unification of China under the Qin state, and the rise of the first emperor, Qin Shi Huang, as depicted in the manga Kingdom. Kingdom portrays the Warring States period as this epic, long-lasting saga, and young readers get super fired up about it. In Japan, we have our own Warring States period with figures like Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi, which is also exciting. However, in world history, this Warring States period that gets so much attention in fiction is often depicted very briefly. This is a major point of disconnect between the general public and world history. People wonder why this era, which is so exciting in manga and movies, gets such short shrift in history books. They want more! But I think the point here is that the purpose of fiction and the purpose of world history are different. Why is that? Well, portraying the Warring States period in detail is great for creating exciting battle manga. But why does world history exist? It exists because later rulers wanted to learn how to unite people effectively, so they compiled and preserved historical records. In other words, world history is a message to future generations, etched in stone, telling us how to create a better society. It's a guide on how to succeed. So, the Warring States period, which was a time of failure, filled with death and conflict, doesn't need to be emphasized in world history. It's unnecessary to romanticize an era of constant warfare. World history is about learning how to avoid war and unite people effectively. If you understand this, you'll see why the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period can be condensed. Sure, the battles are exciting, but war is still war. If this era is seen as a time of failure, it makes sense for it to be depicted briefly. However, one crucial figure emerges during this period, and I want to introduce him: Confucius. He was a philosopher during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period, a time of intense warfare. The leaders and kings of that time wanted to know how to win battles and unite people effectively. They were seeking advisors When powerful rulers asked for guidance, various intellectuals stepped up to offer their wisdom. One of them was Confucius, who taught the rulers about Confucianism, a philosophy emphasizing the importance of virtue. We still have moral education classes today, right? Confucianism teaches us to respect our parents, not to harm living creatures, and so on. It emphasizes that a virtuous ruler can effectively govern a country. Subordinates will follow a virtuous leader with respect and loyalty. This is crucial. The ruler should possess virtue, and the subordinates should show respect. This creates a well-structured hierarchy based on fundamental morality. We might agree with this idea, but it's particularly familiar to Japanese people because Japan strongly adopted Confucianism during the Edo period. Even Shibusawa Eiichi, who played a key role in establishing banks and other institutions during the Meiji era, wrote a famous book titled "The Analects and the Abacus." It emphasizes the importance of business and making money, but also stresses the importance of morality. Even though it's important to make money, we shouldn't forget about ethics. Shibusawa Eiichi, a figure from the Meiji era, was influenced by the Edo period, where Confucianism was deeply ingrained. So, Japanese people can relate to the Confucian values of respecting parents, valuing virtue, and showing respect. However, this was just one school of thought. There were many other "super advisors" during this time, known as the Hundred Schools of Thought, who offered different ideas. The group that practiced Confucianism was called the Confucians. But there was another group, the Legalists, who believed that their philosophy was even more important than Confucianism. The Legalists said, "Laws are important. Rules are important. Instead of focusing on intangible things like morality and respect, let's create clear rules and laws. If everyone follows them, things will be more orderly." There was also the Mohist school, known for its concept of "universal love." They believed that rules and morals weren't the answer. Rules are rigid, and morals are based on hierarchical relationships like parent-child or senior-junior. They advocated for love, a universal love that treats everyone equally. This idea is somewhat similar to Christianity. The Mohists preached love. There was also the military strategist Sun Tzu, known for "The Art of War." He believed that winning battles was paramount. To protect the country, one must master military tactics. He taught how to win wars by deploying large armies, preparing thoroughly, and never retreating out of fear. He emphasized the importance of mastering military strategies. So, we have the Mohists who valued love and equality, the Legalists who emphasized rules and laws, and the Confucians who focused on morality and hierarchical relationships. Among these Hundred Schools of Thought, Confucianism had the most significant and lasting impact. Now, take a look at the neighboring civilizations. In this tumultuous era, when power and violence reigned supreme, these prominent thinkers emerged, and their philosophies were eventually recognized by those in power. We see this in India with Buddha, the prince-turned-philosopher. And in the Middle East and Europe, it was arguably Jesus Christ. So, Christianity, Buddhism, and Confucianism arose in ancient times when violence was rampant, and the strong could do whatever they pleased. These philosophies questioned the status quo, asking, "Isn't this wrong? Shouldn't we stop?" They advocated for the importance of morality. Confucius was the Chinese version of this phenomenon. As proof, Buddhism was later adopted by Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire in India. He saw the practicality of morality and ethics and made Buddhism the official religion. In Europe, Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity as a way to maintain order. This software of morality, later endorsed by those in power, was essentially invented by Confucius in China during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States period. However, it took some time for Confucianism to gain official recognition. During this era, another innovation emerged: iron. After the invention of writing, iron was the next major innovation. It revolutionized agriculture by allowing for the creation of durable tools. Previously, they used bronze, which was fragile and easily broken. Bronze was fine for art, but not for weapons or tools. Iron, or steel, was much stronger and more durable, leading to a massive increase in productivity. They could plow fields and cultivate land much more efficiently. This advancement in agriculture led to wealth disparity, just like the influx of Aryans and iron tools in the Indus Valley Civilization. This created inequality, leading to the rise of Buddha. Iron also revolutionized warfare. With iron weapons, bronze was repurposed for something else that further fueled wealth disparity: money. They started using bronze to make coins. So, the innovations of iron tools and bronze coins led to an agricultural revolution and the creation of currency. This, in turn, widened the gap between rich and poor, intensifying the Warring States period. In this chaotic time, a philosopher preaching morality emerged. But it was still an era of violence. The most skilled in violence was Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of Qin. At that time, during the Warring States period, there were seven or so kingdoms, each with its own king. Qin Shi Huang conquered all of them, so the title of "king" wasn't enough for him. He was the king of kings, so he decided to call himself "emperor" for the first time. The character "Shi" (始) also means the beginning or the origin, implying a divine status. By combining "Huang" (皇) and "Shi," he declared himself the emperor and the beginning of a new era. Qin Shi Huang was incredibly capable, which is why he was able to rule. But how did the Qin state manage to defeat all the other kingdoms? There was another major innovation involved: horses. Being located in the westernmost part of China, Qin had exclusive access to good horses, allowing them to move faster than their rivals. It was like gaining a transportation advantage. They had the best horses. Plus, there was another innovation: currency. Each state had its own currency, but the coins issued by Qin Shi Huang were round. It seems obvious now, but back then, it was groundbreaking. Round coins are more convenient than triangular or other shapes. They stack neatly and are easier to handle, making them ideal for circulation. This was a series of innovations that we now take for granted. We take writing for granted, but back then, it was an innovation. We take iron for granted, but back then, it was an innovation. And now we take round coins for granted, but in Qin Shi Huang's time, it was a new and exciting development. Round coins were a game-changer, and they sparked innovation. Another innovation was Qin Shi Huang's emphasis on Legalism. He believed that rules and laws were essential. By establishing clear rules, people could become stronger and unite more effectively. This focus on law was one of Qin Shi Huang's key innovations. However, it also led to a major problem. One of Qin Shi Huang's greatest achievements was the Great Wall of China, a famous landmark and a must-see for anyone visiting China. But why did he build this long wall? China had always been vulnerable to invasions from nomadic groups. Why? Because it was too vast. I always say in my world history and international relations classes that a country that's too big is weak against invasion. It's like having a huge house that's difficult to secure. You need so many security systems, and you never know where intruders might come from. It's the same with a country. If you have a massive territory, it's hard to defend every corner. But if you're living in a small apartment with only one entrance and not much to steal, you're less likely to be targeted. However, if you have a huge house filled with valuables, it's a thief's paradise. That's why defense becomes so costly. In ancient China, each king built their own walls and fortifications to protect their territories. Qin Shi Huang decided to connect all these walls. So, he didn't build the entire wall from scratch; he connected existing ones. This massive public works project required a tremendous amount of money and labor. And this is a red flag. Throughout history, we see that large-scale construction projects often lead to public exhaustion and the decline of the state. While these projects might be beneficial for future generations, they are a burden on the people who have to build them. Qin Shi Huang's Great Wall was one of the first examples of this. However, it did help to defend China against invasions to some extent. So, whether it was good or bad is a complex question. But we do know that it had some negative consequences. Qin Shi Huang valued Legalism, but Legalism was in conflict with Confucianism. Confucianism emphasized the importance of morality and virtue, urging rulers to govern with benevolence and for leaders to cultivate personal virtue. Qin Shi Huang found this irritating. He thought, "What are these people on about? We've conquered the world with our new rules and systems. Stop talking about morality." He rejected the idea that an emperor should rule with virtue and saw the Confucians as arrogant dissenters who challenged his authority. He then punished the Confucians severely. It wasn't just punishment; it was a massacre known as "burning books and burying Confucians." He ordered the burning of all Confucian books and the execution of Confucian scholars by burying them alive. This was an act of extreme cruelty. Such brutality is a part of humanity's dark history. In ancient times, public executions by guillotine or mass killings by burying people alive were common. But we don't see such things anymore. Why? Because it creates resentment, leading to revenge. Over time, humanity has learned to abandon these practices. We were once a very barbaric and cruel species. But through history, we've learned from our mistakes and gradually made our systems more humane. Even Qin Shi Huang, a brilliant genius of his time, didn't understand how much pain and resentment his actions would cause. That's the nature of ancient times. This radical emperor, who believed that rules were all that mattered, eventually faced a rebellion. Why? Because his rules were too harsh. He had strict rules for everything, including the construction of the Great Wall. He demanded that workers arrive on time, and the punishment for tardiness was death. People were terrified of being late. If they were late, they knew they would be executed. The emperor had already shown his ruthlessness by burying Confucian scholars alive, so there was no room for mercy. So, what would you do if you were running late? Would you go to work, knowing you'd be killed? Or would you rebel, hoping for a chance to survive? In this case, the risk of rebellion was the same as the risk of being executed for being late. So, people rebelled. This shows that the design of the rules was flawed. Overly strict rules don't lead people in the right direction. If the punishment for being late is death, people won't even bother going to work. They'll try to save their lives instead. This is why we need to eliminate excessively harsh laws. We need to find the right balance for punishments. Some crimes might warrant a fine, while others might require imprisonment. Have you ever wondered why there are different levels of punishment? It's because we've learned from history that making every crime punishable by death is too extreme. We've gradually adjusted our laws to be more proportionate. Qin Shi Huang's harshness ultimately led to rebellion, and we're back to the question: What happens after the emperor? After Qin Shi Huang's death, there was a power struggle. People rebelled against his oppressive rule, and two new leaders emerged: Liu Bang and Xiang Yu. Both of their stories are legendary, but history has been a bit unfair to Liu Bang. He was from a prestigious family, intelligent, and physically strong. He had everything. Xiang Yu, on the other hand, came from a peasant background, had no special abilities, and was only known for his good character. Liu Bang was all about character, while Xiang Yu was all about ability. These two became iconic figures in Chinese history, their stories passed down through generations. Liu Bang initially suffered many defeats, but he persevered with the help of his supporters. When he finally faced Xiang Yu, it was a clash of two very different leaders. Xiang Yu believed he was the most capable and didn't trust his subordinates. He was harsh and didn't reward them well. He was like a tyrant, similar to Oda Nobunaga in Japanese history. But what happens to such leaders? They get betrayed by their subordinates. It's like being bitten by your own dog. This is a common theme in both Eastern and Western history. Xiang Yu, despite his immense talent, was harsh towards his team, and this ultimately led to his downfall. You might have heard the expression "surrounded by enemies on all sides." The state of Chu "楚" that Xiang Yu led was actually named after him. He was surrounded by enemy forces, his subordinates had betrayed him and joined Liu Bang. He was surrounded by Liu Bang's troops and heard them singing songs from his own homeland. This was the origin of the idiom "surrounded by enemies on all sides" (四面楚歌). It was a devastating scene. He wasn't just surrounded by enemies; he was surrounded by his own former subordinates. In the end, Xiang Yu, despite his great abilities, was cornered and defeated. This is a historical event rich in lessons, similar to the Honnoji Incident in Japanese history. Oda Nobunaga, known for his harshness towards his subordinates, was betrayed by Akechi Mitsuhide. You should watch Takeshi Kitano's movie "Kagemusha" to see this. Nobunaga was a demanding leader who didn't reward his subordinates well, while giving everything to his sons. This led to resentment among his followers, who felt they weren't being treated fairly. They decided to overthrow him, leading to the Honnoji Incident. It's like working for a company with a terrible boss who takes all the credit and doesn't share the rewards with his employees. Eventually, the employees get fed up and decide to take action. Xiang Yu faced a similar situation. His subordinates felt mistreated and betrayed him. In contrast, Liu Bang was known for his popularity. But there's more to the story. After becoming the leader, he decided to do the opposite of Qin Shi Huang. He wanted to create a different kind of organization. Qin Shi Huang had tried to centralize power by appointing officials from the central government to rule over local regions. This was a new system at the time, and it clashed with the traditional system of feudalism, where local lords ruled their territories autonomously. Qin Shi Huang's approach is now the norm, with governors and mayors appointed by the central government. But back then, it was a novel idea. Qin Shi Huang understood the importance of rules, laws, and centralized control. That's why he was a genius. But what did he lack? Morality. He buried the Confucians alive because they disagreed with him. He was ruthless and lacked compassion. Liu Bang and his followers realized that they shouldn't repeat Qin Shi Huang's mistakes. They decided to trust their subordinates and delegate authority. Liu Bang believed in his popularity and wanted to be different from Xiang Yu. He assigned different regions to his trusted followers. But as time went on, he started to worry. He realized that some of his subordinates were more capable than him. He became afraid that they might betray him. His advisors warned him about this possibility, and he eventually took action against some of them, demoting or even executing them, and replacing them with his own sons. This is a difficult issue. How much should you trust your subordinates? How much authority should you give them? It took humanity a long time to figure this out. Trusting too much can lead to betrayal, but not trusting enough can lead to resentment. Liu Bang struggled with this issue, even though he was known for his good character. The dynasty that Liu Bang established was the Han Dynasty. This was a long-lasting dynasty that spanned over 400 years, with a brief interruption by the Xin Dynasty. The Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. This pattern repeats itself throughout Chinese history: a period of chaos and conflict is followed by a period of radical reform under a short-lived dynasty, which then paves the way for a long-lasting dynasty that builds upon those reforms. The Han Dynasty was the first of these long-lasting dynasties. The Shang and Zhou Dynasties collapsed due to internal strife, followed by the Warring States period. Then came Qin Shi Huang, a genius who unified China but ruled with an iron fist. His reign was short-lived, but he left behind a legacy of innovation, including the Great Wall, the emphasis on law, and round coins. This paved the way for Liu Bang, who established the Han Dynasty. After Liu Bang, a wise ruler named Emperor Wu came to power. He realized the importance of Confucianism and made it the official state philosophy. This was a turning point in Chinese history. The emperor system, a political structure, and Confucianism, a moral philosophy, finally came together. This was similar to what happened in India with Emperor Ashoka and Buddhism, and in the Roman Empire with Emperor Constantine and Christianity. These vast empires adopted moral and philosophical systems to govern their people effectively. In China, Emperor Wu's adoption of Confucianism was a major step in this direction. Mankind has finally acquired two major weapons: empire and morality. It's no exaggeration to say that this was the golden age of antiquity. Now, in the midst of all this, we have the Han Dynasty. But the Emperor Wu was, well, a "martial" emperor. You see, they called him Emperor Wu but these were actually nicknames. In fact, the Chinese emperors had real names, like Liu something-or-other, but after they became emperor, they started getting called by nicknames based on what kind of emperor they were. So, basically, emperors who were strong in battle were called something-or-other Wu Di, and those who were good at politics were called Wen Di. So, there were also a bunch of so-and-so Wen Di's. That's where things get a little confusing. The term Huangzu something-or-other refers to the founder of a dynasty. But Huangzu something-or-other wasn't necessarily the founder, it could also refer to the second or third emperor. There are so many of these nicknames that it can be a bit of a headache. You might think, "Huangzu means Liu Bang, right?" But no, this guy is also Huangzu. "What? Why?" Well, because he founded a dynasty. "Are this Wen Di and that Wen Di different?" Well, it's just a nickname, indicating that he was good at politics. There's also this Wu Di and that Wu Di. "What's up with that?" It just means they were strong in war. The Emperor Wu of the Former Han Dynasty, of course, had a real name, but he was known as the martial emperor because he was strong in battle. Why? Because he went on a lot of expeditions. Here we go, expeditions. In world history, I'm always warning about how expeditions lead to decline. But when an emperor expands the territory to its maximum through expeditions, people say, "Wow, this emperor achieved the largest territory! He's got the track record!" and they remember him as "Wu Di!" But usually, decline follows. This Wu, too, eventually declined due to his expeditions. And from around this time, the Han Dynasty fell into another pattern of decline. What was it? Here it comes, eunuchs. One of the great negative legacies of human history. That's the eunuch.It's scary. So, what has China suffered from? It's the fact that those in power have been obsessed with lust. And to suppress the conflicts arising from this lust, what did the emperors do? They would deprive the men who served them of their reproductive organs, so they wouldn't lay hands on the beautiful women the emperors had gathered. This is outrageous. Absolutely outrageous. In other words, all the male staff would be castrated. This is a serious case of exploitation. This should be stopped. They were recruiting men, you know. "Oh, I'll apply then." But the male staff were basically castrated. Wait a minute, wait a minute. Why? "So that no mistakes happen." I won't make any mistakes. "I won't make any mistakes." I can't trust you. This is the emperor's inner circle. I can't trust you. So, basically, instead of suppressing the emperor's lust, they were suppressing the lust of the staff around the emperor. This eunuch culture continued until the end of the ancient and medieval periods, the end of the Jin dynasties. But how did this eunuch situation come about? Basically, the death penalty was the most severe punishment. But the next most severe punishment was to deprive a man of his reproductive organs. While some died as a result, others barely survived. But it was an incredible amount of damage. You know, being castrated, not in the sense of being emasculated, but through actual surgery. It's outrageous. It's not right. But those who survived continued to serve. And then, someone said, "Wouldn't it be a good idea to have them work in the emperor's harem, the inner palace, like the Ooku in Edo Castle?" So, eunuchs started being placed around the emperor. As a result, the status of eunuchs rose dramatically. And before long, there were people who became eunuchs because they wanted to be close to the emperor. These people who became eunuchs in this way had given up a major part of human happiness. They had lost something. That's why their desire for power became abnormally strong. They were determined to rise to the top. Why? Because they had chosen this life of wealth, even at the cost of not being able to leave any descendants, so they had to win this power struggle. What was the result? When the emperor was strong and wise, he controlled the eunuchs. But when a less intelligent emperor came to power, he was actually controlled by the eunuchs. It was a reverse domination. How did this happen? Well, the emperor was hereditary. The throne would pass on to the emperor's child. What was inconvenient for the eunuchs was a competent emperor taking the throne. So, they would use various means to put a very young child on the throne. This was the worst possible outcome for the national interest. But the eunuchs were definitely motivated to do this. "If we have a smart emperor, we won't have a chance to exploit him. Let's make him a stupid emperor. No, wait. Not just stupid. A child would be perfect. He'll listen to us. Let's make him a stupid, young emperor." So, they would install a young emperor and manipulate him as his guardians. This corrupt eunuch politics is what rotted the Former Han Dynasty. The eunuch system was created to protect the absolute power of the emperor. But the eunuchs, in their quest to fulfill their own desires, ended up corrupting the heart of the nation. And when the Former Han Dynasty became corrupt, the Xin Dynasty took over. But then the Xin Dynasty was overthrown, and the Later Han Dynasty was born. The Han people, the ethnic group of the Later Han Dynasty, are a source of great pride for China. The Han people created the Chinese characters. Yes, the Han Dynasty! That's where we get those characters everyone uses. Even Japan uses them. When you think of China, you think of kanji, the characters of the Han. The Han people who created those characters weren't going to let themselves be taken over, so the Later Han Dynasty was born. And this Later Han produced a wise ruler, Emperor Guangwu. With "guang" (light) in his name, he must have been a good guy, right? It seems that Guangwu finally realized something obvious: war tires out a country. He realized that constant warfare and indulging in desires exhaust the people. He was a light, a light emperor. The martial emperor of light, ah, he realized this and said, "Let's stop the war," and forbade fighting. After the Later Han was established, war was forbidden. It's said that even the use of the word "fight" was banned within the imperial palace, the harem, the emperor's residence. "This is a fight between us staff," they'd say. "I'm going to fight this guy tomorrow." But no, the word "fight" was forbidden. All kinds of fighting were forbidden. "Our fight," "the battle of something-or-other," all forbidden. You can't fight or quarrel. Fighting leads to exhaustion. Power struggles also lead to exhaustion. So Guangwu focused entirely on domestic affairs and reduced taxes. "Taxes are exhausting. Let's cut them. Let's value the people. Cut taxes. And free the slaves." He was a fantastic emperor, this Guangwu. Thanks to him, the Later Han after the Former Han prospered. The Han Dynasty was incredibly important. First, there was the popular Liu Bang, then Wu, who recognized the importance of Confucianism and morality, and then Guangwu. But what was the problem? Eunuchs. In the end, the emperors had a massive number of women, a harem of 3,000, they say. They kept thousands of beautiful women there to produce many descendants of the excellent emperor. They couldn't see that this system was flawed. And once Emperor Guangwu was gone, the eunuchs gradually emerged again. Emperor Guangwu ascended the throne at the age of 30. That's a respectable adult, even by today's average lifespan standards. And the next emperor after Guangwu also ascended the throne as an adult. But for the next ten generations, the emperors were all under ten years old. Yes, the Later Han was finished. That's how it goes. Even after the wise Emperor Guangwu said, "Tax cuts are important, the people are important, war is bad," just two generations later, the wise emperors were gone, and the eunuchs took control. So, they prop up this child emperor, right? This tiny kid, like the ones you see on ”AKIRA” covers, sitting on a giant throne. And the old guys whisper in his ear, manipulating him. The little emperor's like, "Oh, I get it," and "I'll leave everything to you." And they're all, "Very well, Your Majesty. We'll take care of everything. You just go have fun with the ladies. Ha ha ha!" And the girls are like, "Tee hee hee!" and "Come this way, Your Majesty! Leave everything to us." And the eunuchs are like, "We'll rule all of China!" It's terrifying. Even Guangwu couldn't change it. In other words, no matter how virtuous or brilliant a leader is, if the rules are ambiguous, their reign won't last. If a genius doesn't establish clear rules during their lifetime, evil will inevitably take over and the nation will be corrupted. That's the lesson Chinese history teaches us. The same thing happened in ancient Greece. There was this period called the Periclean Age, where this super virtuous guy ruled well for 15 years, but then everything went to hell. The Roman Empire, too. And India. Basically, a good leader's reign lasts 30 years, tops. After that, it's all downhill. And the Later Han Dynasty was completely rotten. The eunuchs, the Ten Attendants, they completely spoiled the emperor. They were running amok, thinking they were the top dogs. The generals were like, "Enough is enough!" and that's where the Three Kingdoms story begins. The Three Kingdoms! It's a great story. I love this manga called "Beyond the Heavens." You should check it out. The Three Kingdoms period is just glossed over in world history, so just read "Beyond the Heavens." So, they figure, "Hey, let's just prop up a kid," and things get crazy. They take out the Ten Attendants and literally carry out this child emperor. Then this super tyrannical guy named Dong Zhuo comes along, props up the kid, and says, "I'm taking over." But then everyone's like, "Dong Zhuo's a traitor!" and they rise up against him. But Dong Zhuo gets betrayed by his own subordinate. It's crazy. This tyrannical king, Dong Zhuo, has the strongest warrior, Lu Bu, on his side. But Lu Bu's not very bright. He gets manipulated and betrays Dong Zhuo. Another betrayal! But Lu Bu gets taken down by a super smart guy named Cao Cao. Here comes Cao Cao. In the novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and the most popular manga in Japan, "Yokoyama Mitsuteru Sangokushi," Cao Cao is the villain, the final boss. But in the official historical records, Cao Cao is the main character. Why? Because in terms of power, it was like 7 to 1 to 2: Cao Cao, Liu Bei, Sun Quan. Liu Bei and Sun Quan were no match for Cao Cao, who dominated the north with overwhelming power. Cao Cao was a complete rationalist. So, his character is pretty similar to Qin Shi Huang. He was very rational and meritocratic. He established the Nine-Rank System, saying he was sick of the corruption and nepotism in the government and among the Confucian scholars. The same thing happened with Christianity, right? People were buying their way into priesthood for a comfortable life. Confucianism had become corrupt too, with recommendations and bribes being exchanged. Cao Cao was fed up with it. He wanted to judge people based on their abilities, not their family background. So, he implemented the Nine-Rank System and brought about incredible innovation. What's even more impressive is that Cao Cao never became emperor himself. There were three kingdoms: Wei, founded by Cao Cao; Shu, founded by Liu Bei; and Wu, founded by Sun Quan. Liu Bei and Sun Quan both declared themselves emperors, defying the convention of having only one emperor. But Cao Cao didn't. His son did, but Cao Cao himself remained the King of Wei until his son Cao Pi took over. He was clever enough to understand that the emperor was important and that he shouldn't claim the title for himself. So, even when the child emperor offered him the throne, he refused, saying he had no intention of becoming emperor. He positioned himself as the protector of the Han Dynasty, not a usurper. He took down the Ten Attendants who were manipulating the child emperor, and then Dong Zhuo, who had replaced the emperor with a different one. By doing so, he established himself as the legitimate ruler and gained momentum. But the most exciting part is the Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao, with his overwhelming strength, defeats Liu Bei. Liu Bei is almost killed and thinks he can't win. But then he joins forces with Sun Quan. Sun Quan hesitates at first, but then he gets angry and says, "Are you saying we can't win against Cao Cao? You want to end up like this table?" He slams his sword into the table and says, "Let's go!" So, they head to Red Cliffs. It's an interesting battle. Cao Cao's army arrives with a massive fleet, but Liu Bei and Sun Quan's forces trick them into chaining their ships together. You might be wondering why. That's the key point. Then, Zhuge Liang, Liu Bei's brilliant strategist, predicts the wind. He says, "The wind will blow from the south. We'll attack from this direction." He gives the signal, and the ships that had pretended to defect from Cao Cao's side approach. They put on a show, saying they want to join Liu Bei and Sun Quan. Cao Cao's army, overconfident, lets them get close. But then the ships are set on fire. The flames spread to the chained Cao Cao ships, and they're all burned down. That's the Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao's army is defeated, and he retreats. This was made into a movie called "Red Cliff." It's a very exciting part of the Three Kingdoms story. So, you have Cao Cao, the rationalist; Liu Bei, the virtuous leader; and Sun Quan, the successor of Wu. There are many fascinating characters, like Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei. Guan Yu, Liu Bei's loyal general, is so righteous that he never gives in to Cao Cao's attempts to recruit him. He's later worshipped as the god of business. Zhang Fei is impulsive and a bit ADHD. And Zhuge Liang is incredibly intelligent and can predict the wind. But in the end, it's Sima Yi, Cao Cao's strategist and Zhuge Liang's rival, who comes out on top. Cao Cao was very smart, but his son was even smarter. So, Sima Yan, from the Sima Yi clan, ends up taking over everything. You're probably like, "What the heck? What happened to Cao Cao's kids?" Cao Cao was a genius, right? But not all of his kids were geniuses. Turns out, the Sima clan's kids were more capable than the Cao clan. As a result, the Sima clan took over Wei. And Sima Yan, a descendant of Sima Yi, took over Wei, then crushed Shu and Wu, and unified everything. That's the Jin dynasty. Yeah, you might be surprised that Sima Yan took over, but that's what happened. Since the Sima clan was more capable than Cao Cao's kids, you'd think the Jin dynasty must be pretty awesome. You'd want to see what kind of politics Sima Yi had. You'd think, "Sima Yi's descendants took down the Cao clan, and even crushed Wu and Shu. They must be geniuses, right? What kind of politics do they have?" Well, Sima Yan was obsessed with women. Wait, what happened to Sima Yi? He was amazing until he took over everything. He was like, "I'll show you the Sima clan's DNA! Cao Cao's sons are nothing compared to me. Their IQ is way lower than mine. I took over, and Shu and Wu are no match for me. Let's crush them." "Alright, I did it. I took over everything. Hooray!" Then he took the beautiful women from Wu's harem. "Oh, we crushed Wu. What should we do with the harem?" "Should we let them go? Should we kill them?" "No, no, wait. Let me see them." "Wow, they're all so beautiful. What a waste. Bring them here." So he brought the women from Wu's harem, and asked, "What about our Wei harem?" "We've been gathering beautiful women since Cao Cao's time." "Oh, okay. Keep them. Combine them." So he combined the harems. "The Chinese market is secured. 3,000 women in the harem." "Wow." 3,000 years of China, 3,000 high-class women. Wow, 3,000 women from Wei plus 3,000 women from Wu equals 10,000 women. He had a harem of 10,000 women, and he said, "I'm going to stay in the harem." So he stayed in the harem. What was he doing? According to historical accounts, he basically just wandered around the harem. What are you doing, Sima Yan? What happened to the genius? He had 10,000 women, so he couldn't even play with all of them. But what he did was ride a sheep-drawn cart. Horses and cows are faster outdoors, but this was on the premises, so a sheep was pulling the cart slowly. He rode the cart, like a golf relief cart, and got off wherever the sheep stopped. Then he would feast with the women there and enjoy himself until the next morning. As a result, the 10,000 women had a fierce battle. They were like, "The emperor never comes here." "Isn't the harem too big? Don't we have too few chances?" Wait a minute. Think about it. There are 10,000 women. Even if he sleeps with one woman a night, that's only 365 women a year. "But after 10 years..." The calculation was, "Oh, 3,650 women. Wait a minute. 3,650 women in 10 years. If I'm the last one, it'll be 30 years later. I can't wait that long. What should I do?" So they said, "Sima Yan is riding a sheep-drawn cart, so we need to make the sheep stop." "Let's put some bait out." "Let's put something out that it can lick." "Let's put out some salt." So they put out a pile of salt in front of their houses, and waited for Sima Yan's sheep to lick it. This is said to be the origin of the current practice of placing salt at the entrance of a house. What kind of origin is that? If you see a pile of salt, you might wonder why it's there. Well, it started with Sima Yan's sheep licking it. That doesn't make any sense. I don't even want to talk about it tomorrow. That's the "I don't even want to talk about it tomorrow"trivia. The origin of placing salt at the entrance of a house is that the 10,000 women in Sima Yan's harem said, "I can't wait 30 years. Put out some salt." So, this is basically saying that even a genius can change after taking over everything. If he had been like this from the beginning, it would be understandable. But he was working hard at first, and then after taking over, he suddenly changed and said, "Alright, let's play with beautiful women." That kind of thing can totally happen. And this guy isn't the only one. This pattern will happen again. The Sima Yan pattern will come again. And after being obsessed with women, what awaits is chaos. What did you learn? Even after saying, "The beauty of the country has ruined the country," the Warring States period began in the blink of an eye. Finally, they said, "We shouldn't do that anymore," and gathered eunuchs, but the eunuch system worked too well, and the number of women in the harem kept increasing. They said, "Even if we gather 3,000 women, no one will touch them," and "All the male staff are eunuchs, so no one will touch them. We can increase the number of women as much as we want." As a result, the eunuchs became too powerful, and the country became corrupt. But the descendants of the heroes of the Three Kingdoms, who rose up to save the corrupt country, did the same thing. "What are you doing, gathering 10,000 women?" After that, the Southern and Northern Dynasties period began. During this period, the northern part of China was invaded by nomadic people. The Great Wall was breached, and the nomadic people came in. This was an important issue, but because the emperor was obsessed with women, he didn't care about it. The nomadic people kept pushing in, and the original people were pushed to the south. The northern part was completely taken over. But here's the interesting thing about China. The nomadic people came in from the north, and sometimes the north was completely conquered. But the south had the Yangtze River civilization, and the north had the Yellow River civilization. The south was easier to farm, so when the people were pushed to the south, they were like, "Oh, this is a nice room. It's easy to live here." So even though the nomadic people created the Northern Dynasty and the original people were pushed to the Southern Dynasty, the Southern Dynasty sometimes lived more prosperously. They were like, "We didn't need the whole country. We only needed the south." But they still wanted to unify the country, so they chased the romance of unification, and the Sui dynasty was established. The Sui dynasty was so prosperous that Prince Shotoku of Japan sent envoys to study it. He said, "Oh, I see. So that's how it is." The Sui dynasty was a unified dynasty that had been unified for the first time in a long time. In this Sui dynasty, Emperor Wen appeared. This is the first time we've talked about Emperor Wen in this class. Right, Emperor Wen was different from Emperor Wu. He achieved significant results in politics. Here he comes, the long-awaited Emperor Wen. He created something huge. What was it? The imperial examination. That's right, the test. China is known for its extremely difficult imperial examination for government officials. So, Cao Cao said, "We should choose people based on their ability," and "We should choose people based on merit, not connections or money." Emperor Wen was the one who implemented a testing system for staff recruitment. China has a very large population. There are all sorts of people, some who are good with words, and some who are good-looking. But what's really needed in politics are smart people. How do you gather these smart people? Well, it's hard to tell. Even if they tell you about their achievements, they might be lying. So, Emperor Wen created the imperial examination system, a unified test. This was an innovation. He also created the equal-field system. Basically, all land belonged to the emperor, and the emperor would lend out his land. It was a public land, public people kind of thing. He would lend out the land and say, "Cultivate the land, pay taxes, and I'll lend you the land." This system was combined with the household registration system. The emperor would manage all the land. "Block A is yours, block B is yours, block C is yours." "A is Tanaka, B is Yamamoto, C is Sato." Everything was managed, so taxes were collected from Tanaka for block A, Yamamoto for block B, and Sato for block C. The equal-field system ensured that taxes were collected properly. Furthermore, by keeping track of household registrations, conscription and labor were also controlled in a unified manner. The truth is, there were so many people that it was hard to know who was where. This was because each region had been left to its own devices. There were local bosses, and the emperor would say, "Leave it to them." But then it was unclear who was where. If you don't know who's where, you don't know if taxes are being collected properly. And when it came to conscription, you had to rely on the word of the local bosses. So, household registration was a way to control everything in a unified manner. Keeping track of household registrations was actually very important for the country, because it made it possible to conscript and collect taxes. Both conscription and taxation involve taking things. They are the most important things for a country to manage its people. Even in Japan today, we have the My Number system. You might wonder why we have it. It's so that the government can properly manage its people. The point of managing people is to collect taxes properly and to be able to conscript people in times of need. Properly managing people digitally is very important for today's countries. Emperor Wen was able to find talented people, collect taxes evenly, and conscript people effectively through the equal-field system and the imperial examination. However, Emperor Wen only created systems. He created great systems, but he wasn't particularly virtuous. So, he wasn't very popular. Why? Because he only created a unified test and systems for conscription and taxation. He was very smart and very hard-working, but not very popular. This was Emperor Wen. And then came Emperor Yang. He was scary. The character for Yang in his name is the same as the character for "sun," but it's not the happy, sunshine kind of sun. It's the blazing, burning kind of sun. So, his name means "the sun that burns everything." He was a terrible character. He undertook large-scale public works projects. There were two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. It would be very convenient if these rivers were connected by a canal. It would make transportation easier. The rivers flowed horizontally. If they were connected vertically, it would be like a bus stop. "If we connect here, no one will come to our bus stop." "I have to walk so far to get here. I wish they would connect it." People were thinking like that. Previous emperors had also thought, "Oh, the Yangtze River and the Yellow River. It would be very convenient if they were connected vertically." They had said, "Connect them like this," but Emperor Yang finally did it. "The Sui dynasty is strong. The Sui dynasty is amazing." It was a unified, strong country. Emperor Wen and his predecessors had created great systems like the imperial examination and the equal-field system, so they thought, "We can do it." So they said, "Connect them." They expanded the Grand Canal. They connected two large rivers that should never have been connected. This was a large-scale public works project, the longest since the Great Wall. There weren't enough people to do the work, so they even brought in women and children. This was very unpopular. The Sui dynasty was so unpopular that it only lasted a few decades. This is exactly like what happened with the Qin dynasty. The First Emperor was smart and introduced new systems, but he wasn't understood. "Why are you unifying the characters?" "Why are laws important?" "Why are you burying people in the Great Wall?" He wasn't popular because he rushed to introduce new systems and large-scale public works projects. This is what happened in the Sui dynasty. And to make matters worse, Emperor Yang even went on an expedition to Goguryeo. He lost and came back. He fought far away, undertook large-scale projects, and said, "Why are we having financial difficulties?" But the Sui dynasty, a short-lived dynasty, ended, and the next dynasty was the Tang dynasty, the second shortest-lived dynasty after the Qin dynasty. So, when it comes to China, there aren't that many dynasties that shine brightly. That's why the Han and Tang dynasties are so famous. During the Tang dynasty, a Buddhist monk named Xuanzang traveled to India to study Buddhism. By the way, during the Han dynasty, they traveled all the way to the Roman Empire through the Silk Road, passing through the Kushan Empire and the Middle East. In other words, when a great dynasty flourished, there was also a lot of overseas exchange. The Han dynasty had exchanges with the Roman Empire, and the Tang dynasty had exchanges with the Vardhana dynasty in India. Now, in the Tang dynasty, an incredible ruler appeared. That was Emperor Taizong, Li Shimin. Taizong was the second emperor after Gaozu, the founder of the Tang dynasty. Li Shimin was a great ruler. Finally, a great ruler. Goodbye, Sui dynasty! We've been waiting for you. He was a great ruler, the likes of which we haven't seen since Emperor Guangwu. Emperor Wen was also very capable, but Li Shimin was great because he was the first emperor who had the ability to listen. His reign, known as the Zhenguan era, was very good. Why? Because for the first time, an emperor had the ability to listen to his subordinates. He was smart and could listen to his subordinates, just like Liu Bang. Li Shimin even left behind a book called "Zhenguan Zhengyao," which compiled records of his discussions with his subordinates. He discussed with his subordinates how to govern the country. He was an amazing emperor. During the Tang dynasty under Li Shimin, the Three Departments and Six Ministries system was created. This was a governing system with three departments and six ministries. It was a pyramid. This system was not a class system, but a government system. There were three departments. The first department was responsible for writing down the emperor's words. The second department was called the "Department under the Gate." This department was responsible for reviewing the emperor's orders that were written down by the first department. It had the authority to decide whether or not to carry out the emperor's orders. Even if the emperor gave an order, this department could send it back if they thought it was a bad idea. This was like a parliament to the cabinet. The functions of the cabinet and the parliament were established here. And under the third department, there were six ministries. These ministries were like the government ministries of today. There was a ministry of personnel, a ministry of finance, a ministry of the military, and a ministry of law. This is exactly the same as the current system of government ministries. There was a Ministry of Finance, a Ministry of Justice, a Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, and a Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. Almost all of the main ministries were there. The current political system of cabinet, parliament, and ministries was invented in the Tang dynasty. Wow. Until then, the emperor would say, "Do this," and everyone would have to do it. Or if he said, "Stop," everyone would have to stop. But now, there was an emperor vs. parliament system. The emperor's secretaries would write down what he said, and the emperor would listen to it. The parliament was a system that institutionalized the emperor's ability to listen. By passing the one-top emperor through the filter of the parliament's majority vote, a stop function was established for overly strange orders. This was the first time a safety-guarded emperor was born in the Tang dynasty. And to learn about this system, Japan sent envoys to the Tang dynasty. Japan was still in the Nara period. This continued into the Heian period, until the end of the Heian period, when Sugawara no Michizane abolished the practice of sending envoys to Tang China. From the Nara period to the Heian period, Japan went to the Tang dynasty to learn about the system of government. Why was it that the Tang dynasty was so advanced in Asia? It was because of the negative history of tyrannical emperors who had carried out terrible policies. The Tang dynasty was the first to create a system with the Three Departments and Six Ministries and the Zhenguan Zhengyao. It was because they had the best emperor, Li Shimin. But Li Shimin died, and there was a third emperor after him. And when the fourth emperor came along, something happened. The mother of the fourth emperor, the wife of the third emperor, had been acting strangely since the time of the third emperor. She wanted to have a say in things. She had been patient while her husband was emperor, but as soon as her son became emperor, she took the throne from him and became the first female emperor of China. This was Empress Wu Zetian. As soon as her son became emperor, he wasn't very capable. Empress Wu Zetian took the throne, and her son was upset and tried to take the throne back, but he was poisoned by his wife. This is the worst possible outcome. Empress Wu Zetian took the throne, and when her son finally took it back, he was poisoned by his wife. This is the story of Empress Wu Zetian and her son. After that, the empress who poisoned her son was exiled, and Emperor Xuanzong appeared. Emperor Xuanzong was a very capable and rational ruler. He was a meritocrat. He achieved great results in politics during his reign, known as the Kaiyuan era, which was like the Zhenguan era of Li Shimin. But here it is again. He was driven mad by a beautiful woman. There are two patterns when it comes to being driven mad by beautiful women. One is when there are a lot of beautiful women, like the 10,000 women in Sima Yan's harem. The other is when there is only one beautiful woman, like Daji. Even the most intelligent emperors can be driven mad by a single, peerless beauty or 10,000 beautiful women. The strongest version of this came along. The woman who drove Emperor Xuanzong mad was Yang Guifei, one of the three most beautiful women in the world. Here she comes, Yang Guifei. She's so famous that there's nothing we can do about it. Emperor Xuanzong was so fond of Yang Guifei that he lost all interest in politics. But this is where things start to change. A new power comes into play. You see, China is a big country. When the government is committed to politics, things go well. But when capable people stop being committed, what happens? The country easily splits apart. So, why did this split happen? It was because the equal-field system, the household registration system created by Emperor Wen of Sui, collapsed. Why did it collapse? It was because the defense of the borderlands had always been a challenge for China. "They're attacking from the north. Stop it." But it was too much trouble to keep sending troops from the central government, so they entrusted the defense of the borderlands to the local people. But when they did that, local bosses emerged. You see, it's very difficult to have a centralized government with full control from the center. So, by delegating to local governments, those local bosses started doing whatever they wanted. All the land belonged to the central government, but when it became local land, private land was born. This private land was called a "shoen." This would later happen in Japan as well. During the Tang dynasty, Japan was still in the Nara and Heian periods. Japan learned about the public land, public people system from the Sui and Tang dynasties, and tried to create a centralized state. But later, when the power of the central government weakened, samurai emerged. The nobles hired samurai to protect them. The samurai started to own their own land. Shoen were created. And the guardians and stewards who guarded the shoen created their own countries. The land became theirs by force and autonomy. So, at first, the people who were entrusted with the defense of the borderlands were called "jie du shi," which means "people who use moderation." But they became just like the warlords of the Warring States period in Japan. The samurai became independent, and the warlords became local daimyos. The Tang dynasty, which had once boasted of being a great empire, split apart. This was because the household registration system collapsed. When the local people owned their own land, the household registration system, which had been used to lend land to the peasants, disappeared. It was private land. So, the central government lost track of the people and couldn't collect taxes or conscript soldiers. Everything that had been unified became fragmented. Why? Because Emperor Xuanzong was obsessed with Yang Guifei. But even though Emperor Xuanzong was obsessed with Yang Guifei and shoen were created, the Tang dynasty continued for more than 10 generations. It didn't collapse immediately. Why? Because the system was strong. The Three Departments and Six Ministries bureaucracy was very strong. In other words, even if the top leader went crazy, the group could still hold together if there was a parliament and ministries. In the past, China would have collapsed immediately if the top leader went crazy, but the Tang dynasty proved that if you have a bureaucracy and a parliament, the country won't easily collapse even if the top leader goes crazy. But even that had its limits, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period came along. The Warring States period came again. Wow. Is this the third or fourth time? There was the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period. There was the Three Kingdoms period. There was the Northern and Southern Dynasties period. And now there's the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. A great empire collapsed. The era of war and chaos came. And the one who managed to put it all together was the Song dynasty. Speaking of the Song dynasty, there was the Song-Japan trade. Taira no Kiyomori of the late Heian period in Japan engaged in trade with the Song dynasty. So, Japan was in the era of Taira no Kiyomori. In the Song dynasty, Zhao Kuangyin was the one who put an end to the chaos of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Zhao Kuangyin hated war. He was like Emperor Guangwu. He hated the word "war." He had no ambition. He said, "I don't want to be emperor." But how did he become emperor? One day, his younger brother woke him up. "Brother, wake up." "I'm sleepy. What's up?" "Come here." "What is this? Why are you making me wear such fancy clothes?" "This is the emperor's robe." "I don't want to be emperor. I won't do it." "If you won't be emperor, I have an idea." "What is it?" "If you won't be emperor, I'll kill you and then kill myself." "That's too much. What? You'll kill me if I don't become emperor? Don't be so dramatic." "Just get out of this building." "What?" "Get out." When he went outside, his friends were waiting for him. "Hey, your brother is going to be emperor!" "Thank you. I guess I can't back out now." And that's how he became emperor. What is this, like a gang? But that's just an episode about how he was pushed into becoming emperor by everyone. "I don't want to be emperor." "You're the only one who can do it." "Look, everyone is saying so." "You're the emperor." "You're the only one." "Okay." "Yay!" And that's how he became emperor. He absolutely didn't want to go to war, so he did the exact opposite of what had been done before. He said, "The imperial examination system is good for testing academic ability, but let's also look at their personality." He introduced interviews. It was a subtle upgrade. He also said, "There are so many ethnic groups attacking us from the north. It's been going on forever, so there's no point in fighting a war." So he said, "I'll pay you money. Please go home." He gave them money to stop the war. As a result, the country had financial difficulties. "We don't have any money. Peace is difficult. We don't have any money." But he said, "Well, at least we're not at war. Let's try to manage somehow." He was a super pacifist who tried to maintain peace with money. But then a movement arose that would destroy this gentle, gentle Song dynasty of Zhao Kuangyin. That was Genghis Khan. Oh no. The blue wolf of Mongolia, Genghis Khan. He and his sons came along and said, "We'll take care of all of Eurasia." And it wasn't Genghis Khan who destroyed the Song dynasty and established the Yuan dynasty. It was his grandson, Kublai Khan. Yes, Genghis Khan certainly wreaked havoc in Mongolia, but his children and grandchildren wreaked havoc all over the world. The Yuan dynasty was divided into four khanates by Kublai Khan, who said, "This will be the Ilkhanate," and "This will be the..." and so on, and they conquered the world. Why? They were nomads, but they completely integrated the nomadic lifestyle with military organization. They created a system of "1,000 households," with 1,000 nomadic households forming a unit. And how did these 1,000 people operate? They integrated movement, nomadism, and military affairs. They basically brought their families with them, and that became the army. Nomadic people moving around functioned as an army. It was a complete, super military state. Everyone was a soldier. Everyone was a warrior. "We move. We destroy as we move." "Everyone is a warrior." These people, their descendants, all rode on horseback and went out to destroy the world. It was a super military state. The Yuan dynasty created the Ilkhanate in the Middle East. They also created another one in Central Asia, and one in Europe. Yes, Europe went all the way to Russia. They crushed the Kievan Rus' and made it part of the Khan's territory. Genghis Khan's family was strong, not only his children but also his grandchildren. They were just strong. They were brutal, incredibly fast, and smart. Genghis Khan's family conquered everything. Why do you think they were destroyed? This is the key point. They were a super military state, focused only on military affairs. It was like the ultimate version of the First Emperor of Qin. They only thought about the military and didn't think about domestic affairs. What happened? The tyrannical kings were gradually swallowed up by something. That was religion. Tibetan Buddhism. They had already achieved everything they could with power. Facing death, they wondered, "What should I do?" The nobles of the Heian period also turned to Pure Land Buddhism. Nobles and victors who had achieved everything in life sought peace of mind and salvation in religion. They built incredibly gorgeous, golden temples in Tibetan Buddhism. They were obsessed with this. And the invincible descendants of Genghis Khan hired a large number of people in various places. And they ran into financial difficulties. They ran out of money. Basically, they went on long expeditions, waged wars, and wasted money. When they ran out of money, they became weak. And then, the Yuan dynasty, the strongest of the Genghis Khan family, Kublai Khan's dynasty, finally ran out of money and collapsed. That's when the Ming dynasty appeared. A man named Zhu Yuanzhang, also known as Hongwu, founded the Ming dynasty. This Hongwu was an incredible person. He was the second emperor to come from a peasant background. The first peasant emperor was Liu Bang. Hongwu strengthened the existing systems. "Three Departments and Six Ministries? I see. That's great. Governance, governance." He focused on domestic affairs. The super military state had expanded and expanded, but in the end, it couldn't control domestic affairs. That's what he was aiming for. He was going to focus on domestic affairs. What was he going to do? He was going to further strengthen the central government's authority within the Three Departments and Six Ministries. Why? Because the Tang dynasty collapsed because the local powers became too strong. The shoen system made the local powers too strong. He realized that if he could just suppress the local rebellions, the Tang system would have worked. So, first, he put the six ministries under the direct control of the emperor. So, he kept the parliament, but by creating ministries under the direct control of the emperor, he greatly increased the speed of administration. But if he did this, the emperor's authority would increase, but the emperor's work would also increase dramatically. But Hongwu had the ability to do everything himself. He handled hundreds of documents a day, all by himself. He accomplished this by running a super one-man business. Furthermore, he analyzed that the collapse of the household registration system was the cause of the collapse of the Tang dynasty, and he further strengthened the household registration system. He put all household registrations under the control of the central government, and he also put all the land under the control of the central government. He made a complete list of all the land. He also realized that morality was important. Systems alone were not enough. He knew that from the time of the First Emperor of Qin and Emperor Yang of Sui. He had to give Confucianism to the people, just like Emperor Wu, who protected Confucianism, and Emperor Guangwu, who emphasized domestic affairs. He had to give Confucianism as a morality. But it was difficult to explain complicated things, so he decided to make it into just six slogans. He summarized the six slogans, called the "Six Maxims," and made the peasants chant them every day. This was an incredible control. He took the systems created by the Han and Tang dynasties and strengthened them even further. He focused on domestic affairs. And he also learned from the mistakes of Liu Bang and the Han and Tang dynasties, who had suffered from rebellions by their subordinates. Liu Bang had said, "I'll leave it to you," and then he became scared. In the Tang dynasty, they also said, "I'll leave it to you, Jiedushi," and there were rebellions. So, Hongwu controlled everything to the utmost, and if anyone showed any sign of rebellion, he would immediately purge them. He tried to overcome the failures of the past, from the Han to the Tang dynasties, with this incredible control. As a result, he handled hundreds of cases by himself every day, and if anyone showed any sign of betrayal, he would have them arrested through the secret police and executed in groups. He was an incredible dictator. The fear of Hongwu's dictatorship is reflected in the two different portraits of him. There are two portraits of Hongwu that remain. One is a plump, dignified face of an emperor. The other is a terrifying face with a monstrous expression. The gentle face is said to be the one he had painted himself, and the terrifying face is said to be the one that the people secretly painted. The Ming dynasty, which was completely controlled by the secret police and advanced control, is also called the Dark Ages, contrary to the meaning of the character "Ming," which means "bright." But this system was very good. The power was concentrated in one person, and the people were completely controlled by household registration and taxes, and Confucianism was added on top of that. This method continued to be used after that. The Ming system lasted for a long time. The Ming dynasty was strong. The Han dynasty lasted because of a succession of wise rulers. But the Ming dynasty lasted because of the overwhelming system and control created by Hongwu. However, even the Ming dynasty was eventually destroyed. It was destroyed by foreign invaders. The foreign invaders who had been troubling China for so long. Sometimes they would take over the north. There was the Northern and Southern Dynasties period when they controlled the north, but the Yuan dynasty completely took over China. The Qing dynasty was established by the Manchus, who were originally from Manchuria. Nurhaci, a Manchu, came down from the northeast and established the Qing dynasty, which also lasted for a long time. The Qing dynasty absorbed the control system created by the Ming dynasty. What was good about the Qing dynasty? They had a succession of great rulers, like the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire had a period of prosperity because of the Five Good Emperors, five emperors in a row who were all great rulers. But don't underestimate the Qing dynasty. They had six great emperors in a row. By having six great emperors in a row, the Qing dynasty flourished as the last dynasty of medieval China. First, the Manchus entered from the north and gradually took over. Then, in the third generation, they firmly established the Qing dynasty and conquered the Ming dynasty. The first emperor built the team, and the second emperor named it the Qing dynasty. It was originally called the Jin dynasty, but the Jin dynasty had also been invaded by other countries in the past, during the Northern and Southern Dynasties period and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. It was a trauma for the Han people. They didn't want to be ruled by the Jin dynasty again. So, they changed the name to Qing. When they changed the name to Qing and crossed the Great Wall, it was just when the Ming dynasty was collapsing. There was a rebellion led by Li Zicheng, and the emperor was forced to commit suicide. The Ming dynasty was in chaos, and the foreign invaders came in. The well-prepared foreign invaders were waiting for the right time to take over the Ming dynasty, and when the coup d'etat happened in the Ming dynasty, they jumped in. It was like reaping the benefits of a fisherman. The Qing dynasty took over and established Manchuria in the third generation. Then came the fourth generation. Nurhaci, the first emperor, was said to be a great ruler. The second emperor was also a great ruler, and he changed the name of the country. The third emperor crossed the Great Wall and took over at the right time. And the fourth emperor, the Kangxi Emperor, is said to be the greatest ruler in Chinese history. "What, are you kidding me?" He was even greater than Emperor Guangwu and Li Shimin. He was the greatest ruler in Chinese history. He was the fourth emperor of the Qing dynasty. The third emperor firmly established the Qing dynasty in this area, and then came the Kangxi Emperor. What did the Kangxi Emperor do? Well, for one thing, he implemented a tax reduction policy, just like Emperor Guangwu. "Let's take care of the people. Let's stop imposing heavy taxes." He also implemented a system of appropriation budgeting. He didn't waste money. He didn't say, "Hire a lot of people," or "Gather 10,000 women." He was frugal and cut taxes. He was also very scholarly. He studied all kinds of subjects and even published the Kangxi Dictionary, which became the prototype for later Chinese dictionaries. He studied so much that he published a dictionary. He also integrated the Manchus and the Han people. He had seen the Yuan dynasty, which was the strongest dynasty, but it had a policy of Mongol first. The Mongols were at the top, followed by the Western Asians, then the people of the Jin dynasty, and then the Han people. They had a complete hierarchy based on ethnicity. But the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty integrated the ethnic groups and treated them equally. He kept the Ming officials and mixed them together. He was good at merging. He didn't discriminate based on ethnicity, but chose people based on ability. He integrated ethnic groups, cut taxes, promoted scholarship, published a dictionary, and was frugal. It's no wonder that the Kangxi Emperor, the fourth emperor, is said to be the greatest ruler in Chinese history. During the reign of Emperor Wu, taxes were reduced, domestic affairs were emphasized, and he said, "I won't fight." Zhao Kuangyin, who said, "I shouldn't be emperor," also said, "Interviews are important," and "Let's try to avoid war through diplomacy and money." There was also Li Shimin, who said, "It's important to listen." There were many of them. "That's right, let's create a parliament and ministries, and make a solid system." But the Kangxi Emperor, who sat on top of all of them, used the existing system well without discriminating against ethnic groups, and he also worked hard to be frugal and cut taxes. He also studied and published a dictionary. He was a complete being. But the fourth emperor also came to an end, and then came the fifth emperor. The fifth emperor is only remembered for "successfully succeeding his father for more than 10 years." Here we go again. He's a ruler with no name and a weak presence. Among the Five Good Emperors, the fourth, Antoninus Pius, is said to have done nothing in particular, but nothing happened during his reign. There was also the Iron Emperor after him, but the fifth emperor of the Qing dynasty didn't have much of a character. But the sixth emperor was the Qianlong Emperor. This Qianlong Emperor was more like Trajan, the second of the Five Good Emperors of Rome. He expanded the empire to its greatest extent. But expanding to the greatest extent always involves risks. Trajan, the second of the Five Good Emperors, expanded the empire to its greatest extent, so the next emperor, Hadrian, had to work hard to defend it. Hadrian was known as the "Defender Hadrian" because he defended the empire so much. In other words, when a house gets bigger, it becomes easier to break into. It also becomes more difficult to control. So, if the territory expands, tax revenue will also increase, so it will be temporarily richer, but the difficulty of domestic affairs will jump up. This is a very important point. During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, he went on expedition after expedition. And he won every single one of them. The Qianlong Emperor had a nickname, the "Shiquan Laoren," which means "the old man who won ten times." He won ten expeditions in a row. He spent most of his time at war, but he was so strong that he was given this nickname. However, the country became exhausted because he went on too many expeditions. The Qing dynasty was the strongest dynasty. It successfully mixed the Manchus and the Han people, and it also used the existing systems of the Three Departments and Six Ministries, household registration, and other governing mechanisms. It also had a good system of morality, conscription, household registration, and population management. It didn't indulge in the usual desires, and it was frugal and reduced taxes for the people. But then, the Qianlong Emperor became complacent and said, "Wow, I'm the Shiquan Laoren." He expanded the territory on land, but the times had changed. The era of invading and expanding territory by land was over. At the end of the Qianlong Emperor's reign, ships came from Europe. The British Empire came in. A new superpower with new technology came from Europe across the sea. Here they come. In ancient and medieval times, when all the empires were exhausted, Britain came along. Across the sea. This is bad. China had gone through so much, and finally, the Kangxi Emperor appeared, and the Qing dynasty was born from the Ming dynasty. It became the strongest and largest empire, but then Britain came from across the sea. The Age of Exploration inevitably connected the four major civilization areas. Major innovation creates major disparities. Just as iron tools once created an agricultural revolution and a gap between rich and poor, new innovation occurred in Europe. And what did Europe create? A global disparity. The Age of Exploration created a new global disparity in which Europe became the winner and the Middle East, India, and China became the losers. What will humanity triumph over, and what will it fail at? Stay tuned.