Overview
This lecture introduces philosophy as a conceptual discipline that examines fundamental problems about reality, knowledge, values, science, aesthetics, and religion, emphasizing key philosophical questions, argument structures, and major theories.
Nature and Scope of Philosophy
- Philosophy investigates basic problems about reality, knowledge, and values using reason rather than empirical methods.
- Philosophical problems are conceptual, not empirical, and are addressed through critical discussion and argumentation.
- Philosophy is divided into disciplines: metaphysics (reality), epistemology (knowledge), axiology (values), ethics (correct action), and more.
Analyzing Concepts and Propositions
- Philosophers analyze and clarify concepts (e.g., reality, consciousness, truth, beauty).
- Propositions are statements that can be true or false, expressed by declarative sentences.
- Types of propositions: categorical (affirm/deny without conditions), conditional (if...then), and biconditional (if and only if).
- Valid arguments ensure that if premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
- Sound arguments are valid with true premises; cogency refers to arguments with premises more plausible than the conclusion.
Philosophical Theories and Evaluation
- Theories are answers or explanations to philosophical problems and must be consistent, plausible, and supported by arguments.
- Preference is given to theories with greater explanatory power and fewer unresolved issues (principle of parsimony).
- Arguments consist of premises supporting a conclusion; evaluating them involves checking for validity, truth, and soundness.
Free Will and Determinism
- The debate centers on whether human actions are free or determined by uncontrollable factors.
- Main positions: radical determinism (no free will), libertarianism (free will exists), compatibilism (free will and determinism are compatible).
Values and Moral Judgments
- Values are abstract properties like good, bad, beautiful, or just.
- Judgments can be factual (describe the world) or value judgments (assign value).
- Major theories: subjectivism (values depend on individual/society) and objectivism (values are mind-independent).
Knowledge and Epistemology
- Knowledge is traditionally defined as justified true belief.
- There are three kinds of knowledge: know-how, propositional (knowing that), and acquaintance (knowing by contact).
- Rationalism asserts knowledge comes from reason; empiricism claims knowledge arises from experience.
- Skepticism questions the possibility of certain knowledge.
Philosophy of Science
- Scientific knowledge is systematic, empirical, and critically tested, while common sense is practical and dogmatic.
- The demarcation problem distinguishes science from non-science (e.g., criterion of verifiability, falsifiability).
- Scientific method: inductivism (from observations to generalizations), falsificationism (testing to refute theories).
- Science progresses through paradigm shifts (Kuhn) or error elimination (Popper).
Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
- Aesthetic judgments attribute properties like beauty or expressiveness to objects or works of art.
- Major theories: representationalism (art as imitation), expressivism (art as expression), formalism (focus on form), institutional and historical theories (focus on context and recognition).
Philosophy of Religion
- Philosophy of religion critically examines religious concepts and beliefs.
- Main arguments for God: cosmological (first cause), teleological (design), ontological (conceptual necessity).
- Main argument against: argument from evil (existence of evil vs. perfect God).
- Positions include fideism (faith over reason), rationalism (reason can support faith), and agnosticism (suspending belief).
Key Terms & Definitions
- Metaphysics — branch studying the nature of reality.
- Epistemology — study of knowledge and justified belief.
- Axiology — philosophy of values including ethics and aesthetics.
- Argument — set of premises supporting a conclusion.
- Validity — property of an argument where true premises guarantee a true conclusion.
- Falsifiability — criterion: a theory is scientific if it can be empirically disproved.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review the main philosophical arguments and positions discussed.
- Prepare examples for each type of argument and proposition.
- Complete assigned readings on the philosophy of science, art, and religion.