Lecture Notes on Organic Chemistry

Chapters Overview

• Chapter 19: Ketones and Aldehydes
• Chapter 20: Carboxylic Acids
• Chapter 21: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
• Chapter 22: Enols, Enolates, and α,β-unsaturated compounds

Chapter 19: Ketones and Aldehydes

19.1 Structure

• Aldehydes: Carbonyl group bonded to a hydrogen and a carbon.
• Ketones: Carbonyl group bonded to two carbon atoms.

19.2 Nomenclature

• Proper naming according to IUPAC rules.

19.3 Physical Properties

• Discusses boiling points, solubility, and other physical properties.

19.4 Spectroscopy

• Techniques to identify aldehydes and ketones using IR spectra.

19.5 Reactions Introduction

• Overview of common reactions involving aldehydes and ketones.

19.6 Basicity

• Aldehydes and ketones as weak bases.

19.7 Reversible Addition Reactions

• Mechanisms of addition reactions.

19.8 Reduction to Alcohols

• Reduction techniques to convert aldehydes and ketones into alcohols.

19.9 Grignard Reagents

• How aldehydes and ketones react with Grignard reagents.

19.10 Protecting Groups

• Usage and necessity of protecting groups in reactions.

19.11 Reactions with Amines

• Formation of imines and enamines.

19.13 Wittig Reaction

• Method to form alkenes from aldehydes and ketones.

19.14 Oxidation to Carboxylic Acids

• Process of oxidizing aldehydes to form carboxylic acids.

Chapter 20: Carboxylic Acids

• Key characteristics and reactions of carboxylic acids.

Chapter 21: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

21.1 Nomenclature

• Esters, Lactones, Acid Halides, Anhydrides, Nitriles, Amides, Lactams
• Special naming conventions for each derivative.

21.2 Structures

• Stability and resonance structures of derivatives.

21.3 Physical Properties

• Esters, acid halides, nitriles, and amides: solubility and boiling points.

21.4 Spectroscopy

• IR spectra of CA derivatives; important CO stretch frequencies.

21.5 Basicity

• CA derivatives are not basic; their acidity is shown by low pKa values.

Hydrolysis Reactions

• Different hydrolysis methods for esters, amides, and nitriles, both acid and base-catalyzed.

Reactions with Nucleophiles

• Acid Chlorides: Reactions forming amides and conjugate acids.
• Anhydrides: Nucleophilic attacks leading to separation.

21.9 Reduction

• Reduction reactions of esters and amides to alcohols and amines respectively.

21.10 Grignard Reactions

• Reaction of esters with Grignard reagents to form tertiary alcohols.

Chapter 22: Enols, Enolates, and α,β-unsaturated Compounds

Enolates and Enols

• Enolate Ions: Formed by adding a base.
• Enols: Form spontaneously.

22.1 Acidity

• Enolate ions as Brønsted bases and their pKa values.

22.2 Enolization

• Carbonyl compounds in equilibrium with their enol isomers.