Indo-European Language Family

• Stretches from north India to western Europe.
• Nearly half of the global population speaks an Indo-European language.
• English is part of the Germanic branch, alongside German, Dutch, and Swedish.

Historical Context

• 5th Century: Withdrawal of Romans from England after 400 years of rule.
• Germanic tribes from Denmark and northern Germany began replacing Celtic and Romano-British cultures.
  • Celtic speakers concentrated in Wales, Scotland, and Cornwall.
  • England became culturally Germanic.

Anglo-Saxon Era

• Germanic tribes developed a common identity as Anglo-Saxons.
• Spoke Old English, which is largely incomprehensible to modern speakers.
• Example from Beowulf:
  • Not understandable to modern English speakers.
• Old English Vocabulary:
  • Many commonly used words originate from Old English (e.g., water, child, ear, talk, the).

External Influences on English

• 8th Century: Viking invasions introduced Old Norse.

  • Vocabulary influences: sky, bag, law, hit, they.

• 1066: Norman Conquest led by William the Conqueror.

  • Normans spoke Old French, influencing English vocabulary.
  • Development of Middle English through merging of Old English and Norman French.
  • 30% of English words are of French origin, especially in law, religion, and science.
  • Synonyms in English often stem from both Anglo-Saxon and Norman French (e.g., pig/cow/chicken vs. pork/beef/poultry).

Transition to Modern English

• Middle English is still largely incomprehensible to modern speakers.

  • Example from The Canterbury Tales by Chaucer.

• 15th Century: The Great Vowel Shift occurs.

  • Significant changes in pronunciation of long vowels and silent consonants.
  • Example: knife (pronounced knief in Middle English, 'k' becomes silent).

• Early Modern English: Represented in works of Shakespeare.

  • Example from Romeo and Juliet.

Expansion of English

• 16th Century Onwards: British Empire expansion and Industrial Revolution transformed English vocabulary.
  • New words from colonies and technology.
  • Emergence of various English dialects, particularly in North America.
  • American English accents retain features closer to Shakespeare's time.

Current State of English

• English continues to evolve:
  • New words added to dictionaries annually.
  • Changes in grammar.
  • Future English may become foreign to current speakers, similar to Chaucer's language for us.