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Comprehensive AP Psychology Study Notes

May 14, 2025

AP Psychology Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

Techniques to Learn About Structure and Function

  • Paul Broca: Identified Broca's area linked to speech production (expressive aphasia).
  • Carl Wernicke: Located Wernicke's area linked to language comprehension (receptive aphasia).
  • Lesions: Study of brain tissue destruction and loss of function.
  • Split Brain Studies: By Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga, showing lateralization of brain functions.
  • Imaging Techniques:
    • CAT/CT: X-ray for brain structure.
    • MRI: Magnetic fields for detailed brain imaging.

Measuring Brain Function

  • EEG: Measures electrical activity (brain waves) via scalp electrodes.
  • PET: Displays metabolic activity using color graphics.
  • fMRI: Shows active brain areas via oxygen level changes.
  • MEG: Detects magnetic fields from brain activity.

Organization of the Nervous System

  • Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.
  • Peripheral Nervous System: Somatic (voluntary muscles) and autonomic (involuntary muscles) systems.
    • Sympathetic: Activates stress response.
    • Parasympathetic: Calms body functions.

The Brain

  • Triune Brain Model: Reptilian, old mammalian, and new mammalian brain.
  • Localization & Lateralization: Specific brain areas linked to functions.
  • Key structures:
    • Medulla Oblongata: Regulates autonomic functions.
    • Pons: Involved in sleep and arousal.
    • Cerebellum: Coordinates movement.
    • Basal Ganglia: Movement and memory processing.
    • Thalamus: Sensory relay.
    • Hypothalamus: Homeostasis and hormone control.
    • Hippocampus: Memory formation.
    • Cerebral Cortex: Higher-level processing.
  • Plasticity: Brain's ability to adapt.

Structure and Function of the Neuron

  • Neurons: Basic units of nervous system.
  • Glial Cells: Support neurons.
  • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).
  • Action Potential: Electrical impulse transmission.
  • Reflex Arc: Simple neural pathway.

The Endocrine System

  • Hormones: Chemical messengers.
  • Major Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, etc.

Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology

  • Nature-Nurture Debate: Influence of genetics vs. environment.
  • Behavioral Genetics: Study of heredity in behavior.
  • Evolutionary Psychology: Natural selection and behavior.

Unit 2: Cognition

2.1 Perception

  • Factors Influencing Perception: Internal (psychological state, experiences) and external (culture, environment).
  • Visual Perception: Impact of emotions, experiences, environment.

2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

  • Cognition: Mental processes of acquiring knowledge.
  • Information Processing Model: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
  • Memory Types: Sensory, short-term, long-term.
  • Cognitive Biases: Influence decision-making.

2.3 Introduction to Memory

  • Memory Types and Processes: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
  • Forgetting Theories: Decay and Interference.

2.4 Encoding Memories

  • Encoding Processes: Visual, acoustic, semantic.
  • Enhancing Encoding: Techniques like mnemonics.

2.5 Storing Memories

  • Memory Storage Types: Sensory, short-term, long-term.
  • Influencing Factors: Rehearsal, organization.

2.6 Retrieving Memories

  • Retrieval Processes: Involves cues and memory types.
  • Forgetting Causes: Decay, interference.

Unit 3: Development and Learning

Key Concepts and Theories

  • Nature vs. Nurture: Genetic vs. environmental influences.
  • Stages of Development: Prenatal to late adulthood.
  • Cognitive Development Theories:
    • Piaget: Stages of cognitive development.
    • Vygotsky: Social interaction and cultural tools.
  • Social and Emotional Development:
    • Attachment Theory: Early caregiver relationships.
    • Erikson's Stages: Psychosocial development.
  • Language Acquisition: Stages and theories.
  • Learning Processes: Classical and operant conditioning, observational learning.
  • Real-World Applications: Implications for education, therapy, and parenting.

3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

  • Developmental Themes: Stability vs. change, nature vs. nurture.
  • Research Methods: Cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

3.2 Physical Development Across the Lifespan

  • Prenatal Influences: Teratogens, genetic factors.
  • Motor Skill Development: Gross and fine motor skills.
  • Puberty and Maturation: Physical changes during adolescence.
  • Age-Related Changes: Mobility, reaction time, sensory acuity in adulthood.

3.3 Gender and Sexual Orientation

  • Gender Roles and Influences: Biological, psychological, social.
  • Sexual Orientation: Development and influencing factors.

3.4 Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

  • Piaget's Stages of Development: Sensorimotor to formal operational.
  • Vygotsky's Theory: Social interactions and cultural tools.
  • Information Processing Theory: Memory, attention, problem-solving.

3.5 Communication and Language Development

  • Language Acquisition Stages: Babbling to complex speech.
  • Language Development Theories: Chomsky's LAD, behaviorist, interactionist.

3.6 Social and Emotional Development Across the Lifespan

  • Attachment Theory: Bowlby and Ainsworth's work.
  • Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development: Key challenges in each stage.
  • Emotional Regulation: Development and importance.

3.7 Classical Conditioning

  • Key Concepts: UCS, UCR, CS, CR.
  • Processes: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery.
  • Applications: Therapy, advertising, understanding phobias.

3.8 Operant Conditioning

  • Skinner's Experiments: Reinforcement and punishment.
  • Types of Reinforcement: Positive, negative.
  • Reinforcement Schedules: Continuous vs. partial.
  • Behavior Modification: Applications in therapy and education.

3.9 Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

  • Observational Learning: Bandura's experiments.
  • Neurological Basis: Brain structures and neurotransmitters.
  • Applications: Education, therapy, media influence.

Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

  • Attributions: Internal vs. external.
  • Biases: Actor-observer, fundamental attribution error.
  • Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Influence on perceptions.

4.2 Attitude Formation and Change

  • Stereotypes: Cognitive shortcuts, implicit attitudes.
  • Belief Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite evidence.
  • Cognitive Dissonance: Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs/actions.

4.3: Psychology of Social Institutions

  • Social Norms and Roles: Influence of family, education, religion, etc.
  • Group Dynamics: Conformity, obedience, groupthink.

4.4: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality

  • Freud's Theories: Id, ego, superego, defense mechanisms.
  • Neo-Freudian Contributions: Jung, Adler, Horney.
  • Humanistic Theories: Rogers and Maslow.

4.5: Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality

  • Social-Cognitive Theory: Bandura's reciprocal determinism.
  • Trait Theories: Big Five personality traits.

4.6: Motivation

  • Theories: Drive-reduction, incentive, arousal.
  • Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Influences on behavior.

4.7: Emotion

  • Components: Physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, conscious experience.
  • Theories of Emotion: Cognitive label necessity, facial-feedback hypothesis.
  • Emotion Regulation: Strategies and neurobiology.

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health

1. Stress and Health

  • Reasons for Stress: Daily hassles, major life events, catastrophes.
  • Cognitive Appraisal Theory: Primary and secondary appraisal.
  • Stress Response: General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
  • Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.

2. Psychological Disorders

  • Anxiety Disorders: GAD, phobias, panic disorder.
  • Mood Disorders: Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder.
  • Psychotic Disorders: Schizophrenia.
  • Eating Disorders: Anorexia, bulimia, binge-eating disorder.
  • Somatic Symptom Disorders: Physical symptoms without clear medical cause.

3. Treatment of Psychological Disorders

  • Psychotherapy: CBT, psychoanalysis, humanistic therapy.
  • Biomedical Therapies: Medication and medical interventions.

4. Mind-Body Connection

  • Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): Interaction of mind and body.
  • Lifestyle and Health: Influence of healthy habits.
  • Positive Psychology: Promoting happiness and well-being.

5. Disorders Related to Physical Health

  • Substance Use and Addiction: Impact on brain and behavior.
  • Chronic Illness and Mental Health: Interconnection and integrated care.