AP Psychology Ultimate Guide Notes

Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

Techniques to Learn About Structure and Function

• Paul Broca: Identified Broca's area linked to speech production (expressive aphasia).
• Carl Wernicke: Located Wernicke's area linked to language comprehension (receptive aphasia).
• Lesions: Study of brain tissue destruction and loss of function.
• Split Brain Studies: By Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga, showing lateralization of brain functions.
• Imaging Techniques:
  • CAT/CT: X-ray for brain structure.
  • MRI: Magnetic fields for detailed brain imaging.

Measuring Brain Function

• EEG: Measures electrical activity (brain waves) via scalp electrodes.
• PET: Displays metabolic activity using color graphics.
• fMRI: Shows active brain areas via oxygen level changes.
• MEG: Detects magnetic fields from brain activity.

Organization of the Nervous System

• Central Nervous System: Brain and spinal cord.
• Peripheral Nervous System: Somatic (voluntary muscles) and autonomic (involuntary muscles) systems.
  • Sympathetic: Activates stress response.
  • Parasympathetic: Calms body functions.

The Brain

• Triune Brain Model: Reptilian, old mammalian, and new mammalian brain.
• Localization & Lateralization: Specific brain areas linked to functions.
• Key structures:
  • Medulla Oblongata: Regulates autonomic functions.
  • Pons: Involved in sleep and arousal.
  • Cerebellum: Coordinates movement.
  • Basal Ganglia: Movement and memory processing.
  • Thalamus: Sensory relay.
  • Hypothalamus: Homeostasis and hormone control.
  • Hippocampus: Memory formation.
  • Cerebral Cortex: Higher-level processing.
• Plasticity: Brain's ability to adapt.

Structure and Function of the Neuron

• Neurons: Basic units of nervous system.
• Glial Cells: Support neurons.
• Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers (e.g., dopamine, serotonin).
• Action Potential: Electrical impulse transmission.
• Reflex Arc: Simple neural pathway.

The Endocrine System

• Hormones: Chemical messengers.
• Major Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, etc.

Genetics and Evolutionary Psychology

• Nature-Nurture Debate: Influence of genetics vs. environment.
• Behavioral Genetics: Study of heredity in behavior.
• Evolutionary Psychology: Natural selection and behavior.

Unit 2: Cognition

2.1 Perception

• Factors Influencing Perception: Internal (psychological state, experiences) and external (culture, environment).
• Visual Perception: Impact of emotions, experiences, environment.

2.2 Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

• Cognition: Mental processes of acquiring knowledge.
• Information Processing Model: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
• Memory Types: Sensory, short-term, long-term.
• Cognitive Biases: Influence decision-making.

2.3 Introduction to Memory

• Memory Types and Processes: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval.
• Forgetting Theories: Decay and Interference.

2.4 Encoding Memories

• Encoding Processes: Visual, acoustic, semantic.
• Enhancing Encoding: Techniques like mnemonics.

2.5 Storing Memories

• Memory Storage Types: Sensory, short-term, long-term.
• Influencing Factors: Rehearsal, organization.

2.6 Retrieving Memories

• Retrieval Processes: Involves cues and memory types.
• Forgetting Causes: Decay, interference.

Unit 3: Development and Learning

Key Concepts and Theories

• Nature vs. Nurture: Genetic vs. environmental influences.
• Stages of Development: Prenatal to late adulthood.
• Cognitive Development Theories:
  • Piaget: Stages of cognitive development.
  • Vygotsky: Social interaction and cultural tools.
• Social and Emotional Development:
  • Attachment Theory: Early caregiver relationships.
  • Erikson's Stages: Psychosocial development.
• Language Acquisition: Stages and theories.
• Learning Processes: Classical and operant conditioning, observational learning.
• Real-World Applications: Implications for education, therapy, and parenting.

3.1 Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

• Developmental Themes: Stability vs. change, nature vs. nurture.
• Research Methods: Cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

3.2 Physical Development Across the Lifespan

• Prenatal Influences: Teratogens, genetic factors.
• Motor Skill Development: Gross and fine motor skills.
• Puberty and Maturation: Physical changes during adolescence.
• Age-Related Changes: Mobility, reaction time, sensory acuity in adulthood.

3.3 Gender and Sexual Orientation

• Gender Roles and Influences: Biological, psychological, social.
• Sexual Orientation: Development and influencing factors.

3.4 Cognitive Development Across the Lifespan

• Piaget's Stages of Development: Sensorimotor to formal operational.
• Vygotsky's Theory: Social interactions and cultural tools.
• Information Processing Theory: Memory, attention, problem-solving.

3.5 Communication and Language Development

• Language Acquisition Stages: Babbling to complex speech.
• Language Development Theories: Chomsky's LAD, behaviorist, interactionist.

3.6 Social and Emotional Development Across the Lifespan

• Attachment Theory: Bowlby and Ainsworth's work.
• Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development: Key challenges in each stage.
• Emotional Regulation: Development and importance.

3.7 Classical Conditioning

• Key Concepts: UCS, UCR, CS, CR.
• Processes: Acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery.
• Applications: Therapy, advertising, understanding phobias.

3.8 Operant Conditioning

• Skinner's Experiments: Reinforcement and punishment.
• Types of Reinforcement: Positive, negative.
• Reinforcement Schedules: Continuous vs. partial.
• Behavior Modification: Applications in therapy and education.

3.9 Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

• Observational Learning: Bandura's experiments.
• Neurological Basis: Brain structures and neurotransmitters.
• Applications: Education, therapy, media influence.

Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

4.1 Attribution Theory and Person Perception

• Attributions: Internal vs. external.
• Biases: Actor-observer, fundamental attribution error.
• Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Influence on perceptions.

4.2 Attitude Formation and Change

• Stereotypes: Cognitive shortcuts, implicit attitudes.
• Belief Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite evidence.
• Cognitive Dissonance: Mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs/actions.

4.3: Psychology of Social Institutions

• Social Norms and Roles: Influence of family, education, religion, etc.
• Group Dynamics: Conformity, obedience, groupthink.

4.4: Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories of Personality

• Freud's Theories: Id, ego, superego, defense mechanisms.
• Neo-Freudian Contributions: Jung, Adler, Horney.
• Humanistic Theories: Rogers and Maslow.

4.5: Social-Cognitive and Trait Theories of Personality

• Social-Cognitive Theory: Bandura's reciprocal determinism.
• Trait Theories: Big Five personality traits.

4.6: Motivation

• Theories: Drive-reduction, incentive, arousal.
• Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation: Influences on behavior.

4.7: Emotion

• Components: Physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, conscious experience.
• Theories of Emotion: Cognitive label necessity, facial-feedback hypothesis.
• Emotion Regulation: Strategies and neurobiology.

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health

1. Stress and Health

• Reasons for Stress: Daily hassles, major life events, catastrophes.
• Cognitive Appraisal Theory: Primary and secondary appraisal.
• Stress Response: General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
• Coping Mechanisms: Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping.

2. Psychological Disorders

• Anxiety Disorders: GAD, phobias, panic disorder.
• Mood Disorders: Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder.
• Psychotic Disorders: Schizophrenia.
• Eating Disorders: Anorexia, bulimia, binge-eating disorder.
• Somatic Symptom Disorders: Physical symptoms without clear medical cause.

3. Treatment of Psychological Disorders

• Psychotherapy: CBT, psychoanalysis, humanistic therapy.
• Biomedical Therapies: Medication and medical interventions.

4. Mind-Body Connection

• Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI): Interaction of mind and body.
• Lifestyle and Health: Influence of healthy habits.
• Positive Psychology: Promoting happiness and well-being.

5. Disorders Related to Physical Health

• Substance Use and Addiction: Impact on brain and behavior.
• Chronic Illness and Mental Health: Interconnection and integrated care.