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Overview of Medical Imaging Techniques

Apr 24, 2025

Medical Imaging - OCR (A) Physics A-level

X-ray Production

  • How X-rays are Produced: Charged particles are rapidly decelerated, transforming kinetic energy into high-frequency electromagnetic radiation (X-rays).
  • X-rays vs Gamma Rays: Overlapping frequency spectra; differ in origin (X-rays from Bremsstrahlung, gamma from decay or particle collisions).
  • Soft X-rays: Used in medical imaging, generally lower energy than gamma rays.

X-ray Tubes

  • Function: Accelerate electrons in high-voltage field, decelerate with metal anode collisions (e.g., tungsten).
  • Thermionic Emission: Electrons emitted from a heated source.
  • Preventing Overheating: Rotating anode or cooling systems.
  • Collimation: Straighten beams for precise targeting, minimize exposure.

X-ray Spectra

  • Braking Radiation: Produces broad wavelengths with characteristic sharp lines.
  • Cause: Incident electrons knock out low-energy level electrons in anode atoms.

Ionising Radiation

  • Effects: Can ionize DNA, causing damage/mutations.
  • Radiotherapy: Destroys cancer cells while minimizing healthy tissue damage.

X-ray Attenuation Mechanisms

  • Attenuation: Gradual decrease in X-ray beam energy/intensity through matter.
  • Materials: Different materials attenuate differently (e.g., bone vs soft tissue).

Absorption Mechanisms

  1. Simple Scattering: Low-energy X-rays reflect off atoms/molecules.
  2. Photoelectric Effect: X-rays absorbed by electrons, resulting in photoelectron emission.
  3. Compton Effect: X-rays lose energy through inelastic interactions with electrons.
  4. Pair Production: High-energy X-rays create electron-positron pairs in atom fields.

X-ray Imaging

  • Contrast Media: High attenuation materials (e.g., barium, iodine) for imaging soft tissues.
  • Applications: Blood flow, digestive system imaging through use of contrast media.

Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT)

  • 3D Imaging: Uses multiple 2D X-ray images to construct 3D images.
  • Benefits: Better resolution, distinguishes between overlapping tissues.
  • Drawbacks: Longer exposure time, higher radiation dose.

Medical Tracers

  • Use in Medicine: Radioactive isotopes form compounds for specific body locations.
  • Gamma Emitters: Preferred due to low ionizing nature.
  • Examples: Fluorine-18 for PET scans, Technetium-99m for organ monitoring.

Gamma Cameras

  • Function: Detect gamma photons from tracers in body.
  • Collimation: Only detect photons in specific direction.
  • Process: Photons interact with scintillation crystal, producing visible photons detected and amplified.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

  • 3D Imaging: Uses gamma cameras to construct accurate 3D images from photon emissions.
  • Tracer Example: Fluorodeoxyglucose locates areas with high respiration rates.

Ultrasound

  • Nature: Non-ionizing, non-invasive sound waves >20 kHz.
  • Applications: Boundary detection, Doppler imaging for blood flow.
  • Piezoelectric Effect: Generates sound waves via voltage-induced contraction/expansion.

Acoustic Properties of Ultrasound

  • Acoustic Impedance: Product of density and speed of sound.
  • Reflection and Transmission: Depends on media impedance differences.

Doppler Effect in Ultrasound

  • Frequency Shift: Used to measure blood flow speed through changes in frequency when waves reflect off moving objects.
  • Applications: Detect blood clots, calculate blood flow volume.