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Compare and contrast prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
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Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, typically smaller (e.g., bacteria). Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, generally larger (e.g., plant and animal cells).
How does semi-conservative replication of DNA ensure genetic continuity?
Each new DNA molecule consists of one old (parental) strand and one newly synthesized strand, conserving half of the original DNA.
Explain the difference between alpha and beta glucose structures.
Alpha glucose has an H on top and OH on the bottom at carbon 1, while beta glucose has OH on top and H on the bottom at carbon 1.
Describe the primary, secondary, and tertiary structures of proteins.
Primary: The sequence of amino acids. Secondary: Alpha helices or beta sheets formed by hydrogen bonds. Tertiary: The 3D shape formed through further folding, involving ionic, hydrogen, and disulfide bonds.
What defines a condensation reaction, and what is typically released during this reaction?
A condensation reaction joins two molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond and the loss of a water molecule.
How does genetic diversity influence natural selection and species survival?
Genetic diversity provides a population with a greater range of traits, increasing the likelihood of survival and adaptation to changing environments through natural selection.
What mechanisms do plants use to minimize water loss during transpiration?
Plants use stomatal control (opening and closing of stomata), leaf anatomy adaptations (thick cuticle, reduced surface area), and physiological adaptations (C4 or CAM photosynthesis).
How do monoclonal antibodies work in treatment and diagnostics?
Monoclonal antibodies are identical antibodies specific to one antigen type, used in treatments targeting specific cells (e.g., cancer cells) and in diagnostics via specific and sensitive detection of pathogens or biomarkers.
What is the role of the Golgi apparatus in cell function?
The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for storage or transport out of the cell.
What is the induced fit model of enzyme action?
The induced fit model suggests that enzyme active sites are flexible. The substrate induces a change in the active site shape to fit more snugly, enhancing the enzyme's ability to catalyze the reaction.
Describe the structure and function of alveoli in the human respiratory system.
Alveoli are small air sacs with thin walls surrounded by capillaries where gas exchange occurs. Oxygen diffuses into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood.
Discuss the importance of water’s high heat capacity and large latent heat of vaporization to biological systems.
High heat capacity allows water to buffer temperature changes, stabilizing environments and organisms' internal conditions. Large latent heat of vaporization provides a cooling effect through processes like sweating.
Explain the process of binary fission in prokaryotes.
Binary fission is a method of asexual reproduction where a single bacterial cell divides into two identical daughter cells, involving DNA replication, chromosome segregation, and cytokinesis.
How are glycosidic bonds formed and broken in carbohydrates?
Glycosidic bonds are formed by condensation reactions, linking monosaccharides and releasing water. These bonds are broken by hydrolysis reactions, requiring the addition of water to break the bond.
What factors influence the rate of enzyme activity?
Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, and the presence of inhibitors.
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