Key Operant Conditioning Concepts for AP Psychology

Positive Reinforcement

• Definition: Adding a desirable stimulus after a behavior to increase its likelihood.
• Examples:
  • Praising a child for completing homework.
  • Giving a dog treats for obedience.
  • Offering an employee a bonus for meeting targets.
• Effect: Strengthens the behavior-stimulus association, making the behavior more likely to occur again.

Negative Reinforcement

• Definition: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
• Examples:
  • Taking a painkiller to alleviate a headache.
  • Silencing an alarm by waking up.
• Effect: Encourages behavior by eliminating discomfort, opposite of punishment.

Positive Punishment

• Definition: Introducing an aversive stimulus to decrease an undesired behavior.
• Examples:
  • Scolding a child.
  • Giving extra chores or traffic tickets.
• Effect: Aims to discourage unwanted behaviors. Excessive use can lead to fear or aggression.

Negative Punishment

• Definition: Taking away a desirable stimulus to reduce a behavior.
• Examples:
  • Removing privileges like screen time.
  • Taking away a toy.
• Effect: Encourages avoiding undesired behaviors. Should be balanced to avoid frustration.

Extinction

• Definition: Previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, leading to its decrease.
• Examples:
  • Ignoring a child’s whining stops the behavior.
  • Ignoring a pet’s begging.
• Effect: May initially increase behavior ("extinction burst") but leads to reduction. Often combined with reinforcing alternatives.

Shaping

• Definition: Reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior.
• Examples:
  • Teaching a dog to roll over in incremental steps.
• Effect: Useful for teaching complex behaviors by rewarding small achievements.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Definition: Timing/frequency of reinforcement affecting behavior.
• Types:
  • Fixed-Ratio: After set number of responses.
  • Variable-Ratio: After random number of responses (e.g., gambling).
  • Fixed-Interval: After a specific time.
  • Variable-Interval: At random time intervals.
• Effect: Influences learning speed and resistance to extinction.

Discriminative Stimuli

• Definition: Signals that a behavior will be reinforced.
• Examples:
  • A green light signals a food reward for animals.
  • A bell signals start of class.
• Effect: Helps tailor behavior to context by recognizing reinforcement availability.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Naturally satisfying basic needs (e.g., food, water).
• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned, associated with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, praise).
• Effect: Allows working for abstract rewards, versatile in various settings.

Law of Effect

• Definition: Behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated.
• Examples:
  • Praise leads to repeating good behavior.
• Effect: Foundation of operant conditioning; behavior shaped by consequences.

Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)

• Definition: Controlled environment for studying behavior via reinforcement/punishment.
• Examples:
  • Rat presses lever for food.
• Effect: Systematic study of reinforcement/punishment principles.

B.F. Skinner's Contributions

• Key Concepts: Emphasized reinforcement in behavior shaping.
• Research: Developed behavior modification techniques.
• Effect: Influenced education, psychology, and therapy.

Behavior Modification

• Definition: Applying operant conditioning to change behavior.
• Examples:
  • Classroom reward systems.
  • Behavior contracts in therapy.
• Effect: Widely used for effective behavior management.

Token Economy

• Definition: Earning tokens for desired behaviors, exchangeable for rewards.
• Examples:
  • Students trade tokens for prizes.
• Effect: Provides immediate reinforcement, motivating maintenance of positive behaviors.

Premack Principle

• Definition: A more preferred activity reinforces a less preferred one.
• Examples:
  • Play video games after homework.
• Effect: Motivates engagement in less preferred tasks when leading to enjoyable activities.