Overview
This lecture examines B.F. Skinner's theory of operant conditioning, exploring how behavior is shaped by reinforcement and punishment, real-world applications, key experiments, and major criticisms.
Principles of Operant Conditioning
- Operant conditioning is learning through consequences, using reinforcement to increase and punishment to decrease behaviors.
- Positive reinforcement adds a rewarding stimulus; negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one.
- Positive punishment introduces an unpleasant stimulus; negative punishment removes a pleasant one.
- Origins are based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect: behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are repeated.
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
- Primary reinforcers satisfy basic needs (food, water); secondary reinforcers acquire value through association (money, grades).
- The Premack Principle uses preferred activities as rewards for less preferred behavior.
- Overuse of rewards may create dependency and reduce intrinsic motivation.
Skinner’s Experiments
- The Skinner Box allowed controlled study of animal behavior via rewards/punishments.
- Experiments with rats and pigeons showed how reinforcement shapes complex and even superstitious behaviors.
Schedules of Reinforcement
- Continuous reinforcement gives a reward every time; fast learning but quick extinction.
- Fixed ratio: reward after set number of responses; fast response, medium extinction.
- Fixed interval: reward after set time; medium response/extinction.
- Variable ratio: unpredictable number of responses; fast response, slow extinction (e.g., gambling).
- Variable interval: unpredictable time intervals; fast response, slow extinction.
Applications in Psychology and Education
- Token economies reinforce behavior with tokens exchangeable for rewards.
- Behavior shaping rewards successive steps toward a target behavior.
- Operant principles are used in classrooms, therapy, workplaces, and healthcare.
Comparison: Operant vs. Classical Conditioning
- Classical conditioning: passive learning by association, involuntary responses.
- Operant conditioning: active learning by consequence, voluntary behaviors.
- In classical, stimulus precedes response; in operant, behavior precedes consequence.
Criticisms and Limitations
- Does not fully explain cognitive processes, insight, or observation-based learning.
- Overjustification effect: external rewards can undermine intrinsic motivation.
- Findings from animal studies may not fully apply to complex human behavior.
Ethical Implications
- Punishment can cause fear, aggression, and only suppress behavior.
- Animal research raises welfare concerns.
- Over-reliance on external rewards may manipulate or diminish autonomy.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Operant conditioning — Learning based on consequences of actions.
- Reinforcement — Increases likelihood of behavior.
- Punishment — Decreases likelihood of behavior.
- Primary reinforcer — Naturally satisfying stimulus.
- Secondary reinforcer — Learned reinforcing stimulus.
- Premack Principle — Using a preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred one.
- Token economy — System of behavior modification using tokens as secondary reinforcers.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review textbook sections on operant and classical conditioning.
- Practice identifying reinforcement/punishment types in daily life.
- Prepare for class discussion on ethical issues in behavior modification.