Weaponization of Religion: The Manipulation of Religion in the Pursuit of Political Power in Yugoslavia and Syria

Introduction

• Misconceptions about religion often link it to violence and conflict.
• Religion can be manipulated by political leaders to disguise political agendas and instigate conflict.
• The study focuses on Yugoslavia and Syria as case studies due to their complex ethno-religious landscapes.

Theoretical Framework

Defining Political Legitimacy

• Max Weber's theory: Authority as the likelihood of obedience.
• Types of legitimacy:
  1. Traditional: Based on longstanding norms and traditions.
  2. Rational-Legal: Based on established laws and legal orders.
  3. Charismatic: Based on the personality and perceived gifts of the leader.

Measuring Political Legitimacy

• Often measured by political trust, public perception of government responsiveness, and efficacy.
• Relationship between state and individual forms through causality and cyclical influence.

Literature Review

Historical and Social Origin of Religion and Politics

• Religion has historically been a tool for societal cohesion and thus intertwined with politics.

Religion as a Form of Political Legitimacy

• Functionalism views religion as preserving social norms.
• Michael Hoffman: Religion influences political legitimacy.

Politics, Religion, and Conflict

• Conflict theory highlights how religion can maintain inequality and support oppressive regimes.

Religion vs Ideology and Political Islam

• Religion and ideology both create shared identity but differ in scope and metaphysical promises.
• Political Islam blends religion and political ideology.

Contribution to Political Theology and Conflict

• Explores under-studied similarities between Yugoslavia and Syria.
• Focuses on the manipulation of religion in conflict.

Case Studies

Yugoslavia

Historical and Religious Context

• Longstanding religious tensions dating back to the Great Schism and Ottoman invasion.

Creation and Breakup of Yugoslavia

• Formed after WWI; a decentralized state post-Tito.
• Breakup due to decentralization and end of Cold War.

Milosevic and the Yugoslav Wars

• Slobodan Milosevic used Serbian nationalism and Orthodox Christianity to fuel conflict.

Kosovo War

• Ethno-religious tensions exploited by Milosevic for political gain.

Syria

Historical and Religious Context

• Syria's diverse ethno-religious history includes Jewish, Christian, and Islamic eras.

Assad Dynasty and Rise of Alawites

• Alawite minority became political elite under Assad.

Syrian Civil War

• Began with pro-democracy protests in 2011; Assad manipulated religion to maintain power.

Analysis

Religion in State-Sponsored Propaganda

• Milosevic used Serbian nationalism and historical myths to incite violence.
• Assad uses state media to disseminate a government-approved interpretation of Islam.

Religious Policy and Government Restructuring

• Milosevic aligned closely with the Serbian Orthodox Church to bolster support.
• Assad created the Ministry of Religious Endowments to control religious discourse and align it with state ideology.

Conclusion

• Leaders like Milosevic and Assad manipulate religion to reinforce political power and instigate conflict.
• Religion’s role in modern conflict requires renewed academic and diplomatic focus, emphasizing peacebuilding.

Bibliography

• Detailed references to various sources and studies that inform the analysis.