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History. The Renaissance is often regarded as one of
the most prolific periods of artistic achievement in human history. But how does one gauge the
significance of a historical event? For the most part, the influence of any artistic or
social movement depends on the philosophy behind it: what prompted the change in direction?
What brought about the need for new ideas? How do the new ideas stack up against the
old ones? Historical context separates the occasional burst of creative spirit from turning
into a full-blown cultural spectacle. In the case of the Renaissance, the guiding philosophy
was humanism, and it was such a big deal because it provided a stark contrast to the fantastic
and divine elements of the medieval arts. In medieval times, artists romanticized religious
elements, elevating heroic humans to the realm of the gods. Humanism offered a different
proposition, one that valued reason and human spirit more than extravagant ideals. Inspired
by the study of classical antiquity, it transformed the heavenly into the natural. The scale of
thoughts and monuments decreased, and practicality and restraint became some of the most admired
values of the time, especially in the higher echelons of culture. The reverence of rationale
and economy was one of the most brilliant breakthroughs in European culture. It continued
to shine and dwindle over the centuries, finally coming full circle at the dawn of the Enlightenment
in the 18th century. The “Age of Enlightenment” or the “Age
of Reason” was a period of intellectual and philosophical rejuvenation ranging from
the late-17th century to the late-18th century during which European politics, science, arts,
and social dynamics underwent a radical change. The Renaissance pervaded courts and artisanal
spaces, whereas the Enlightenment was a relatively grassroots phenomenon. It was less of a personal
model and more of a social revolution. The starting and ending points of the Age of Enlightenment
are openly debated, just like any other historical event. However, most people agree that the
Enlightenment was a continuation, or expansion, of the Scientific Revolution that began in
the mid-16th century. The scientific revolution followed up the
Renaissance, highlighting the importance of empirical beliefs, calculations, and structure.
Scientists like Newton, Galileo, and Boyle made great advances in mathematics, physics,
chemistry, biology, and astronomy – and the philosophers of the Enlightenment carried
the torch even further. The Enlightenment also built upon the erudition of two gifted
individuals: Michel de Montaigne, the 16th-century French essayist and philosopher whose non-fiction
prose, with its historical anecdotes and casual grace, relied on reason as the highest merit;
and the English statesman and philosopher, Francis Bacon, whose regard for inductive
reasoning gave birth to empiricism and the modern scientific method.
Rene Descartes’ succinct yet utterly profound declaration, “Cogito Ergo Sum” – I think
therefore I am” – from his autobiographical treatise “Discourse on the Method” is
often quoted as the first great statement of the Enlightenment. Often misinterpreted
as an inspirational motto in the age of social media, the quote alludes to Cartesian Skepticism
– an idea that all beliefs are subject to doubt. Descartes was obsessed with epistemological
uncertainty. He realized that most of his beliefs had no rational basis and were subject
to investigation by a curious and reasonable mind. In short, nothing was beyond doubt.
“Cogito Ergo Sum” was Descartes’ breakthrough because the existence of a thinking entity
– himself – was pretty much the only belief he thought was beyond doubt. Cartesian Scepticism
and its fellow ideology, Radical Skepticism, laid the foundation for the changing times.
Europe’s ascent out of the Middle Ages can be partly attributed to a marvelous Chinese
invention: the printing press, which arrived in Europe in the 15th century. Before the
printing press, books had to be copied by hand, and so, education was restricted to
the wealthy and the influential. The printing press became quite popular in a short period,
and knowledge started to trickle down to the masses. In the 17th century, the Republic
of Letters was established – a group of literary figures that extended beyond borders
– and it soon became the go-to activity for intellectuals of the era. In addition
to conducting academic discourse within their society, philosophers could now communicate
laterally across different countries. Open, healthy, and thorough discourse posed a major
challenge to the dogmatic medieval life. But the Republic of Letters was just an indication
of the larger landscape of Europe. Since the Age of Discovery, Europeans had come into
direct contact with Asia, Africa, and the Americas, and imports coming from different
continents allowed for more diversity and novelty in Western life. With an increase
in trade, Europe gradually went from a land of famine and impoverishment to a land of
abundance. Moreover, having traveled the world for exploration and trade, they had witnessed
social hierarchies largely different from their own. They started to revaluate traditional
values and scrutinize the repute and authority of nobles, monarchs, and the Church.
A prominent 17th century English philosopher, John Locke, known as the “Father of Liberalism,”
shaped the modern understanding of identity and self when he introduced the concept of
“tabula rasa,” – the blank state –proposing that the mind of an infant is blank and that
everything he learns, he learns from experience. This was one of the earliest works of modern
empiricism – empiricism claims sensory experience to be the primary source of knowledge. The
18th-century Scottish philosopher David Hume, like John Locke and Francis Bacon before him,
was an eminent supporter of empiricism. He rejected the arguments for innate ideas and
focused solely on experience. Hume argued that cause-and-effect is a misguided thought,
and human beings are driven by passion – not reason. Hume’s philosophical work, “A
Treatise of Human Nature,” is considered one of the most influential works of modern
philosophy. Meanwhile, in the political sphere, the concept
of the separation of powers took hold in 1748 when a French jurist and historian, Montesquieu,
published one of the most influential works in political theory and jurisprudence, The
Spirit of the Laws. In it, he argued that an ideal government would keep the legislative,
executive, and judicial powers separate, and by doing so, force them to keep each other
in check. But the comparative approach to political forms was not unusual for the man.
One can easily glean his disdain for absolutist and rigid social structures in his earlier
work, The Persian Letters, published in 1721, in which two Persian noblemen travel through
France and make fun of their idiosyncratic ways. Another French philosopher, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau, was also critical of perceived cultural progress. Rousseau preferred to take the pretensions
of urban life away for the sake of practicality. While Montesquieu and Rousseau were pointing
out the naivety of social structures, their contemporary, Voltaire, was making waves with
his unapologetic criticism of the Catholic Church. He advocated freedom of speech and
freedom of religion; and subordinated Church to the needs of the state. Another French
philosopher, Denis Diderot, was more unapologetic in his approach, claiming that, “the separation
between the throne and the altar can never be too great.” Diderot was also the co-founder,
chief editor, and contributor to a French encyclopedia, “Encyclopédie,” published
in France from mid-to-late-18th century. The encyclopedia had a secular tone and facilitated
discourse on the topics of natural rights. Speaking of natural rights, people were also
starting to question the conventional approach to genders. Women began undertaking social
and cultural endeavors – wealthy women started to participate in salons that held large gatherings
of women to discuss the ongoing concerns of the philosophical world. Marie de Gournay,
a French writer who had blossomed under Montaigne’s wing and was the editor of Montaigne’s monumental
“Essays,” made valuable literary contributions to humanities and gender studies. Similarly,
Anna Maria van Schurman became the first woman to study at a Dutch university. Like Marie
de Gournay, she was a staunch exponent of female education. On top of being a painter,
poet, engraver, and scholar, she was fluent in fourteen languages. Anna Maria maintained
correspondence with an English teacher Bathsua Makin who was widely regarded as the most
learned woman in England at the time. Today, she is remembered for her work on “An Essay
to Revive the Ancient Education of Gentlewomen, in Religion, Manners, Arts & Tongues, with
an Answer to the Objections against this Way of Education.” Anna Maria also had a correspondence
with Elisabeth of Bohemia. Princess Elisabeth was well-versed in philosophy, mathematics,
history, law, astronomy, and fine arts and also corresponded with Rene Descartes, who
became her teacher and later dedicated his book “Principia Philosophiae” to her.
Women were not the only oppressed demographic to benefit from the “Age of Reason.” Colonial
and imperial ambitions had bruised the backs of African slaves. But with the advent of
the Enlightenment, movements for abolishing slavery started forming in Britain, France,
Netherlands, and their colonies, forcing Western economies to find other ways of sustaining
themselves. So, in the 18th-century, Scottish economist and philosopher Adam Smith gave
birth to modern economics and is often termed the “Father of Economics” and the “Father
of Capitalism.” His book, “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations,” serves as a seminal work of economics. Smith realized that manufacturing, division
of labor, specialization, and free trade are the key instruments of a great economy. While
Smith understood the gains of a free market and individual self-interest, he was also
concerned with its potential pitfalls. The Enlightenment was an outpouring of scientific,
intellectual, and philosophical progress that paved the way for capitalism, the industrial
revolution, and modernism. It was the victory of rationality over tradition, novelty over
convention, and science over superstition. Nothing sums up the Enlightenment better than
its name: the age of light. To learn more about the Age of Enlightenment,
check out our book: The Age of Enlightenment: A Captivating Guide to the Age of Reason,
Including the Lives of Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, John Locke, and Mary Somerville. It’s
available as an e-book, paperback, and audiobook. Also, grab your free mythology bundle e-book
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