Transcript for:
Overview of Introduction to Psychology I

PSYCH1101 - Introduction to Psychology I TUTOR : Candice Ockert UNIT CONVENER : Associate Professor Mem Mahmut Research Engagement : login to sona site TEXTBOOK : Psychology From inquiry to understanding In this unit, you will be introduced to the broad and diverse field of psychology. A range of topics in psychology will be covered in lectures and tutorial activities, learning both the theoretical basis and practical applications of psychological science. Key communication skills will be developed and demonstrated by working on a group presentation, applying the empirical science of psychology for broader social good. LEARNING OUTCOMES : ULO1: Demonstrate broad knowledge of the underlying principles, theories and concepts, and skills in the core topics of introductory psychology (Capability 1: Scientist and Scholar). ULO2: Demonstrate research-informed pursuit of scholarly inquiry by analysing, critiquing, and discussing theory and research in introductory psychology using scientific evidence (Capability 1: Scientist and Scholar). . ULO3: Communicate effectively utilising multiple modes to convey thoughtful, scientifically driven information about introductory psychology (Capability 2: Practitioner). ULO4: Apply introductory psychology knowledge in a manner that is culturally appropriate and sensitive to diversity of individuals (Capability 3: Citizen).  ULO5: Demonstrate knowledge and behaviour of appropriate ethics and values in psychology (Capability 4: Professional). TOPIC : Introductory Week 1 What is Psychology? * The scientific study of how people think, feel and behave * Both a science and a profession Psychology Fields 1. Learning Psychology 2. Biological Psychology 3. Social Psychology - groups impacting individual 4. Clinical Psychology - trained in understanding and treating conditions 5. Personality Psychology - personality traits (5 - openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, neuroticism) 6. Cross-cultural Psychology - understanding cultural influences on thinking feeling and behaving 7. Perception - understanding senses 8. Organisational Psychology - how people think feel behave in workplace 9. Neuropsychology - how brain impacts thoughts feelings and behaviour 10. Forensic Psychology - intersection with law, how reliable memory is in eyewitness technology 11. Cognitive psychology - how we learn to read etc 12. Developmental Psychology - how diff life stages impact way we think feel behave 13. Indigenous Psychology - reclaiming their right to conduct research with their own people, counter western theories about how we think feel behave TOPIC : WEEK 2 2.1-2.5 Understand why it is so important to learn about Indigenous psychology Culture / Cultural Identity * Not what you are born with, learned + experienced * Shared understandings/rules that shape behaviour, norms + coexistence * Many levels : values, attitudes, beliefs, worldview etc Positivism Empiricist philosophical theory that ascertains that scientific knowledge, derived from reason and logic, is true and right Critical Psychology Challenges assumptions inherent in dominant psychological discourses by identifying and challenging power structures that maintain inequality and injustice. - focuses on wellbeing rather than upholding power structures Critical race psychology Advocates for self critical reflexivity about ways psychological science reproduces domination, less concerned with racism as individual bias than they are with institutions and systems Critical race theory * Emerged mid 1970s brought back by media of George Floyd * Year later educational systems restrict rights of some individuals + create racial inequalities which is human rights issue Problematic Common psychology presumptions 1. Universality 2. Western centrality 3. Deficits 4. equivalency Coloniality and psychology * Euro colonisation project propelled from 15th century, vast # countries affected * Had profound impact on social cultural and economic fabric of society + knowledge taught + prioritised + power + privileges afforded to come over others on basis of ethnicity, sex, gender + age * Psychology impacted by continuing legacy of coloniality * Intersection of western ways + eurocentric colonialism led to hierarchical positioning of difference devaluing others * Traditional healing methods seen as “absurd” however had impact on shaping positioning of social sciences - discipline of western psychology …in Australia (eurocentric lens) * Renowned aboriginal + torres strait islander psychologists describe early discipline of psychology in Australia as “complicit in the colonising process, as a dominant discourse, has been ethnocentric and has objectified, dehumanised and devalued those from culturally different groups… Psychology has often been enlisted to enact or justify practices of assimilation and oppression (Dudgeon Rickwood et al. 2014 p 39) * Adoption of social darwinism influenced early scientific interactions with indigenous peoples, harmed them * Herbert spencer applied “survival of the fittest” to psychological processes, proposed that society moves from early to progressively complex development (Dudgeon Rickwood et al. 2014 p 39) * Theories underpinned by racialised assumptions + biological determinism which together supported racist agendas in australia resulting from inherited biological distinctions or deficiencies * Psychologists had supported biological determinist views that genetics underpins intelligence, later testing in the 19th and 20th century found an equivalence in test scores between non and indigenous people (dudgeon, rickwood et al 2014 Kearney 1973) * Stanley Porteus popularised study early 1900s and found that intelligence was influenced by experience not biology * Demonstrated how intelligence is constructed and expressed in diverse cultural settings, as it supported racist agendas * Early practice of psychology had negative impact on mental health of indigenous, changing trajectories of many lives * 1990s through increased representation of indigenous peoples through indigenous psychologists and the support of non indigenous who aimed to change views + assert indigenous psychological concepts Changes include: 1. Development of culturally appropriate assessments by indigenous psychologists 2. Advocacy to improve health disparities 3. Raising awareness of impact of racism + transgenerational trauma 4. Indigenous psychology + models of health + well being understood by indigenous peoples (Dudgeon, Rickwood et al 2014) * Formal meeting of indigenous psychologists occurred 28/3/08 chaired by professor pat dudgeon (first aboriginal psychologist in australia), unanimous decision made to form national body to represent indigenous psychologists (Australian Indigenous Psychologists Association AIPA) * 2009 - AIPA formally launched at APS conference Hobart * 2011 - APS released first rap * 2015 - Reconciliation Action Plan created * 2019 - AIPA registered with office of indigenous corporations + became independent organisation * 2020 Australian Health Practitioners regulation authority released national schemes aboriginal and torres strait islander health + cultural safety strategy 2020-2025 Epistemological equivalence Equal recognition, value + utilisation of diverse theories of knowledge, context of psychology it is creating equal balance + value of both indigenous + non western psychological knowledges + western + transforming systems to reinforce importance and relevance of both Decolonization Historical era when peoples of colonised nations mobilised to break free from psychological social + cultural colonial impositions through actualisation of self determination, self governance + recentring of pre colonial/indigenous epistemologies. Indigenous standpoint theory Important standpoint/positionality that underlies indigenous conceptions + frameworks of wellbeing * Analytical tool to understand how power functions in construction + representation of knowledge + how effects indigenous peoples * Relates to right for indigenous self determination, self governance Early advocates * Charles Perkins - lead freedom rides, drew att to health, housing + education inequalities experienced by indigenous * Vincent Lingiari + Eddie Mabo - led early advocacy for indigenous land rights * UN Declaration on the rights of indigenous peoples - 1982 created UNDRIP, adopted by general assembly in 2007 Transformative reform SEWB Policy 1. Gaps in mental health service provision + lack of SEWB programs 2. Barriers to accessing existing services 3. lack of culturally relevant epidemiological data Recommended system change 1. Culturally responsive services 2. Culturally + clinically competent workforce 3. Transformative, decolonising research practice 4. Social determinants of mental health + wellbeing 5. Decolonising curriculum Indigenous Psychology Global movement of self determination that is striving to decolonise and emancipate from domination of western psychology, consistent with UNDRIP APA task force: 1. Reactive stance against colonisation + hegemony of western psychology 2. Need for nonwestern cultures to solve their local problems through indigenous practices + applications 3. importance of non western culture recognising itself in constructs + practices of psychology 4. Use of indigenous philosophies + concepts to generate theories of global discourse 6 core values of ethical research conducted with aboriginal + torres strait islander ppl + communities 1. Spirit and integrity 2. Responsibility 3. Reciprocity 4. Respect 5. Equity 6. Cultural continuity AIATSIS best practice guidelines for aboriginal + torres strait islander research - 4 foundational principles 1. Indigenous self determination rights 2. Indigenous leadership 3. Sustainability + accountability for quality + cultural appropriateness of research being produced Domains of APAR 1. Indigenous epistemology (knowledge + ways of knowing inform APAR) 2. Indigenous ontology - ways of being related to SEWB (emerging holistic health discourse) affirmed through APAR 3. Indigenous Axiology - indigenous ways of doing research 4. Indigenous research methodology - distinctive indigenous research approach Mental health issues specifically associated with indigenous aussies * Low resilience/self esteem * Suicide * Higher morbidity * Anger * Greif * Alcoholic, drug addictions * Spiritual + emotional poverty * Domestic violence as a result of low communication * Depression, anxiety, high blood pressure * Trauma + stress Historical experiences impact their mental/physical health * Stolen generations * Dispossession * Separation from parents/children * Loss of culture * Locked into cycle of poverty due to cultural differences * Racism - depression, anxiety, high blood pressure, Reasons for more indigenous psychologists * To gain a better understanding as they lived through historical events * Only 218 indigenous psychologists for 800,000 indigenous * Not enough to meet needs * Non indigenous psychologists have the understanding or knowledge * Trauma is generational * Self harm 5th leading cause of death in indigenous * Failure - research isn't there for non indigenous, as aboriginal people need to be understood through cultural empathy - creates barriers for non indigenous practitioners * Non indigenous psychologists don’t understand how to assess indigenous patients * Cultural issue - cultural treatment, clinical issue - clinical treatment * Culture bound syndrome - mimic mainstream mental health issues - spiritual visits of people who pass away = could look like schizophrenia to non indigenous psychologists * Sorry cutting (self harm) - mainstream psychologists don’t understand as it is grief process, releases pain not create pain SEWB Social + emotional wellbeing Determinants of Health 1. Historical - experiences of past events by individuals + families + broader communities that have ongoing impact on SEWB 2. Political - continue to define societal structures + daily living 3. Social - societal circumstances in which people live, grow + age that markedly impact on health + wellbeing of individual across lifespan 4. Cultural - factors explicate relationship between cultural connectedness + welbeing Social + emotional wellbeing domains 1. Connection to body + behaviours 2. Connection to mind + emotions 3. Connection to family + kinship 4. Connection to community 5. Connection to culture 6. Connection to country + land 7. Connection to spirit, spirituality + ancestry Describe the basic concepts relating to cross-cultural similarities and different and provide examples * Opportunity to contribute to + develop scientific evidence not equally distributed within society + across world * Science a vehicle for maintenance of status quo regarding social inequalities, reinforcing power structures * Psychological study found (henrich and colleges 2010) psychological science overwhelmingly biased towards western, educated, industrial, rich and democratic societies, 12% of pop, 80% of people in research studies Understand cross-cultural issues relating to mental health Describe the basic concepts relating to cross-cultural similarities and different and provide examples Cross Cultural Psychology Removes culture blindness Cultures shape * Individualistic vs collectivistic * Meaning, passage + perspective of time * Acceptable dimensions of interpersonal space/intimacy * Emotional display rules * Literal vs conceptual understanding * Degree with which deviance from norms is tolerated * Patterns of deference towards elders/authority * Social “clock” * Manifestation of psychopathology e.g. depression TOPIC : WEEK 3 1.1-1.4 HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY TOPIC : WEEK 2 2.1-2.5 Understand why it is so importance to learn about Indigenous psychology Levels of Analysis * Psychology vast discipline, encompassing study of perceptions, emotions, thoughts + observable behaviours from enormous array of perspectives * Be skeptical of single-variable explanations of behaviour * Psychological influences rarely independent of one another * Naive realism : belief that people see the world precisely as it is * Paradigms : big frameworks that scientists use to understand + study the world * Confirmation bias : tendency to seek out evidence that supports our beliefs + to deny, dismiss or distort evidence that contradicts them * Belief perseverance : “do not confuse me with the facts” effect * Dangers of Pseudoscience * Opportunity costs * Direct harm * Inability to think critically as citizens * Scientific skepticism : approach of evaluating claims with an open mind, but insisting on persuasive evidence before accepting them. Willing to challenge their minds when confronted with persuasive evidence that challenges their preconceptions * Unwilling to accept claims based on authority alone * Critical Thinking : set of skills for evaluating all claims in an open-minded and careful fashion * Reflexivity : critically examining ones own attitudes, values, biases with a view to engage with people in a manner that is culturally safe, meaning free of racism and attitudes of superiority 6 Skills for becoming aware of biases and positionalities * Correlation-causation fallacy : error of assuming that because one thing is associated with another, it must cause the other DEBATES Nature-Nurture * Are behaviours attributable to mostly our nature or rearing environments, nurture * Light has been shed by… 1. Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection Assumption that may human psychological systems ie memory serve adaptive functions Free-will Determinism Debate * To what extent are behavioural choices freely selected rather than mechanically determined by relevant causal factors RESEARCH Basic : Examines how the mind works Applied : examines how basic research can be used to solve real-world problems SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE * Important factor in emotional + physical well being * Social pain experiences share same neurological circuits activated in physical pain experiences DIVERSITY & INCLUSION Inclusion : incorporation of range of humans in activities * using “Identity-first language” (“autistic man”) * Language has powerful impact on feelings of inclusion * How we describe characteristics of people can be embracing + respectful, alienating + disrespectful Diversity : range of humans reflected in activities * Critical for meaningfulness + accuracy of research findings * Historically psychology studies lacked participant diversity, most people are not WEIRD, 96% of research conducted within 12% of world's population * Difficult to ensure * Not feasible to include everyone in a study, may not always be necessary * Researchers should state study’s scope + generality of findings Diversity council of Australia * 11 dimensions of D & I in work place e.g. age, gender * Workplace model of inclusion : respect connection contribution + progression Equity, Diversity and inclusion article Guidelines Terms to avoid: * Underweight * Fat * Obese * Morbidly obese * Elderly * The elderly people * AIDS/HIV victim * Brain damaged * Defective * Alcoholic * Hermaphrodite * She-male, he-female * transgendered Terms to use: * High weight * Lower weight * Advanced maternal age * Older adults * Older people * Persons 60 year * Person with AIDS/HIV * Person with traumatic brain injury * Person with mental disorder * Person with substance abuse * Intersex * LGBTQIA+ * transgender TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS TOPIC : WEEK 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT 10.5a describe how creativity and emotional intelligence relate to intelligence 10.5b Explain why intelligence does not protect us from errors in thinking PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Process of developing + using different tests, measures + methods to understand people's cognitions + emotions + behaviours * allow a psychologist to better understand an individual’s abilities, characteristics, and potential challenges. Measures: 1. standardised psychological tests 2. observational data 3. clinical interviews 4. medical records. Purposes: 1. Clinical + mental health * diagnose mental health disorders * develop treatment plans * risk assessment, to evaluate potential risks of patient to themselves + others. * Cognitive functioning ie attention, memory, cognitive processing, + intelligence tests 2. Education * Aptitude tests to assess cognitive potential can help determine entrance into schools, universities, and degrees. e.g. UCAT * Achievement tests used to monitor educational progress + assess students on current academic abilities e.g. NAPLAN + (HSC * educational placement to determine whether child has learning disorder/whether child is gifted. * determine vocational interests ie what occupation, activities/courses of study might be of interest. 3. Neuropsychology * assess brain injury ie Alzheimer’s, stroke, epilepsy + infection. * assess strengths + weaknesses of person suffered brain injury to develop treatment plans + monitor recovery. 4. Forensics * determine whether defendant competent to stand trial in court. * assess psychological state of offender during offense. * determine whether inmate likely to reoffend. * provide psychological treatment to offenders + victims. * custody evaluation to assess whether parent/guardian should have custody of child. 5. Organisations * personnel selection to determine if person is right fit for role e.g., managerial position. * performance appraisal to evaluate job performance of employees. * Work attitudes to determine job satisfaction + commitment to organisation. * Career counselling for career planning + guidance 6. Research * understand human cognition, emotion + behaviour. * screen potential participants for research studies * test measurement tools for reliability + validity. Principles: 1. Validity : Is the measure measuring the construct that it sets out to measure? If it doesn’t, then it’s not an appropriate measure of the construct. 2. Reliability : Is measure yielding consistent results? Greater consistency results in increased reliability. 3. Standardisation : Is the process used to administer the measure, score the responses, and interpret the results consistent? Standardisation is needed to produce normative data and compare results across different individuals and groups. 4. Fairness : Is the measure fair and unbiased? The measure should not discriminate across individuals and instead address the diversity of the people being assessed. 5. Practicality : Is the measure feasible to administer? Assessments should strive to be practical, cost-effective, and efficient. 6. Ethical : Has informed consent been obtained? Are test-takers results handled confidentially, and communicated to relevant parties in an appropriate manner? Are the limitations of the test communicated appropriately to test-takers? STANDARDISED TEST psychological tests that administered + scored in standard (controlled) manner. * results from these tests allow us to compare individual’s score to another individual who also taken test, as well as normative sample (others in same group). * developed to measure psychological constructs ie intelligence, personality traits, + attitudes. * ‘constructs’ abstract concepts that cannot be directly observed/measured like height. * operationalise definitions of what these constructs mean + develop tests to assess them indirectly. Personality Inventories 1. NEO personality * 240-item measure of Costa and McCrae’s Five Factor Model of personality * Measures all 5 domains of personality : Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness + Neuroticism. 2. 16PF * 185-item self-report personality measure originally developed by Cattel + Mead. 3. MMPI-3 * 335-item measure originally developed by Hathaway and McKinley INTELLIGENCE attention, memory, visuospatial processing, processing language, mathematical ability, reasoning, decision-making and problem-solving Common Tests: * Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS–IV), 16 years to 90 years 11 months. * Wechsler Intelligence Scale Children (WISC–V), children 6 to 16 years + 11 months. * Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SB–5), 2 years to 85+ years. * Raven’s Progressive Matrices (Ravens–2), 4 to 90 years. IQ Standardised score * Lie along Normal Distribution curve * Mean score 100, sd 15 Limitation Factors affecting score * Discrimination * Validity * reliability * Education access + background * Nutrition * Culture * Environment * Overall health + medical conditions CREATIVE ACCOMPLISHMENTS Both novel + successful TEST OF DIVERGENT THINKING Capacity to generate many different solutions to a problem CONVERGENT THINKING Capacity to generate the single best solution to a problem IDEOLOGICAL IMMUNE SYSTEM Our psychological defenses against evidence that contradicts our views CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE Ability to apply knowledge from prior learning that was stored in long term memory * Increases with experience hence mostly formed by environment FLUID INTELLIGENCE Ability to reason quickly + independently of past experiences * Relies on ability to hold attention + benefits from strong working memory * While can be trained, mainly determined by genes TOPIC : WEEK 5 LEARNING LO: 7.1a Describe Pavlov’s model of classical conditioning + discriminate conditioned stimuli + responses from unconditioned stimuli + responses 7.1b explain major principles + terminology associated with classical conditioning 7.1c Explain how complex behaviours can result from classical conditioning and how they emerge in daily lives 7.2a distinguish operant conditioning from classical conditioning 7.2b Describe thorndike's law of effect 7.2c Describe reinforcement and its effects on behaviour + distinguish negative reinforcement from punishment as influences of behaviour 7.2d identify 4 schedules of reinforcement + response pattern associated with each 7.2e Describe some applications of operant conditioning 7.3a outline evidence that supports latent learning + observational learning 7.3b identify evidence of insight learning 7.4a explain how biological predispositions can facilitate learning of some associations LEARNING Change in organisms behaviour or thought as result of experience * Reflected by changes in our brain + changes in what we know + how we behave * All behaviours complex interplay between genetic and biological predispositions, social + cultural environments + ways we learn HABITUATION Process by which we respond less strongly over time to repeated stimuli * Simplest + earliest form of learning * Fetus 32 weeks display habituation when gentle vibration applied to stomach, from initial shock → annoyance can safely ignore * Study it by measuring (skin conductance response → electrical conductivity) sweat → indication of anxiety, fingertip perspiration good indicator * Strong stimuli → ie electrical shocks there is no habituation at all * Evolutionary standpoint makes sense, only stimuli deemed safe/worth ignoring are exempt from habituation Eric Kandel * uncovered habituation in Aplysia, repeated pricking of it in same area forces it to begin ignoring stimulus * Accompanied by progressive decrease in release of neurotransmitter serotonin in aplysia’s synapses * Discovery helped psychologists unravel neural bases of learning SENSITIZATION Repeated exposure to stimuli leads to sensitisation, responding more strongly over time rather than habituation * When stimuli are irritating, dangerous/both PEDAGOGY Study of teaching methodology, taking into account 2 way interaction between learner + teacher CULTURALLY RESPONSIVE PEDAGOGY Approach to teaching + learning that aligns with learner’s culture + world view 8 aboriginal ways of learning : * culturally informed + relationally responsive approach to learning grounded in teachings + knowledges of barkindji, ngiyampaa, yuwaalaraay, gamilaraay, wiradjuri + wangkumarra elders; country; language + ancestry. Does not belong to particular person/theorist rather knowledge comes from + belongs to country where it originated * Comprises 8 culturally responsive approaches for engaging students, teachers + community with aboriginal processes to support teaching + learning * 8 ways : story sharing, learning maps, non-verbal, symbols + images, land links, non-linear, deconstruct reconstruct + community links. Each embodied by symbol displayed in interconnected circular diagram which together form tools for learning * Being implemented throughout schools in aus as a strengths based, culturally responsive pedagogical approach + consistent with multidimensional paradigm of SEWB CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (7.1) Form of learning in which animals come to respond to previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicit an automatic response * To work efficiently, CS must forecast appearance of UCS Conditioning : acquiring all knowledge by forming associations among stimuli * Believed by 19th century british associationists * Once links formed only need to recall 1 element of pair to retrieve other * Simple connections provided mental building blocks for all complex ideas Pavlov’s Discovery * Observed that dogs salivated not only by looking and smelling food but the footsteps of the researchers who would come and feed them, salivating by association, the process of association classical conditioning CS - conditioned stimuli UCS - unconditioned stimuli UCR - unconditioned response ie salvation to the meat powder (nature) CR - conditioned response to the sound of foot steps associated (nurture/environment) PHASE 1 : ACQUISITION * Gradually learn/acquire CR, faster both CS + UCS paired, faster learning occurs PHASE 2 : EXTINCTION * CR decreases in magnitude + eventually disappears when CS repeatedly presented alone, without UCS * Ie numerous presentations of metronome without meat powder = decrease in salvation over time * Extinction = active process rather than passive PHASE 3 : SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY * Seemingly extinct CR reappears in weak form if CS presented again * As if CR lurking in background * CR here is generally suppressed but can return Renewal Effect : when extinguish response in setting different from one in which animal acquired it. Ie phobias reappear once gotten over them bc theyre not in the original setting and when they return it reappears, explains why necessary to treat phobias in relation to setting where fear first arose + other settings where phobic anxiety arises, often adaptive CC + ADVERTISING * High order classical conditioning with repeated sights + sounds of products with photographs of attractive models/celebs * Gerald Gorn (1982) found that pairing coloured pens with popularity of a movie meant people were more likely to choose a certain colour over other colours BACKWARD CONDITIONING UCS presented before CS * Difficult to achieve * Ie presenting meat powder before metronome, metronome trigger very little salvation LATENT INHIBITION Fact that when we have experienced neutral stimulus alone many times, it is difficult to classically condition it to another stimulus HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING Process by which organisms develop classically conditioned responses to CSs associated with original CS. * Allows us to extend classical conditioning to host of new stimuli 2nd order conditioning : new CS paired with original CS - weaker than garden variety classical conditioning 3rd order conditioning : 3rd CS paired with 2nd order CS even weaker 4th order conditioning : difficult/impossible to achieve in lab STIMULUS GENERATION Process by which CSs that are similar but not identical to original CS elicit CR * Stimulus generation occurs along generalisation gradient : more similar to original CS the new CS is, stronger CR will be. * Very adaptive as it allows the transfer of learnings to new things ie learning to drive in your car can then be put into practice on someone else's car STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION Occurs when we exhibit less pronounced CR to CSs that differ from original CS * Helps us understand why we can enjoy scary movies, we can discriminate between movie generated stimulus + real-world version of it + modify our response as result * Usually adaptive bc it allows us to distinguish among stimuli that share similarities but differ in important ways OPERANT CONDITIONING OPERANT CONDITIONING (instrumental conditioning) Learning controlled by consequences of living being’s behaviour * Organisms behaviour shaped by what comes after it ie a reward * Operant : behaviours that an organism produces to receive a reward, organism “operates” on its environment to get what it wants LAW OF EFFECT If a responses in presence of a stimulus is followed by satisfying state of affairs bond between stimulus + response will be strengthened Psychologist E.L Thorndike (if we are rewarded for response to stimulus we are more likely to repeat that response to stimulus in future) * Early forms of behaviourism = SR psychology (stimulus response) * Most of complex behaviours reflect accumulation of associations between stimuli + responses * SR theorists maintain that almost everything we do voluntarily results from gradual buildup of SR bonds due to law of effect Thorndike 1898 * Discovered law of effect in study of cats + puzzle boxes, put a fish just outside and by accident cat hit the lever to escape then thorndike questioned whether this would occur every time * Found that learning occurs through trial and error, SR bonds gradually “stamped into” organism by reward B.F Skinner + reinforcement * Found thorndike’s experimental setup unwieldy bc researcher had to stay to place unhappy cat back into puzzle box following each trial * Limitation made difficult to study operants for long periods of time * Developed skinner box (operant chamber) : electronically records animals responses + prints out cumulative record/graph of animals activity * Typically contains bar delivering food when pressed, food dispenser + often light signalling when reward is forthcoming REINFORCEMENT Any outcome that strengthens probability of response Positive Reinforcement : administering something pleasant ie giving child chocolate when they pick up toys Negative reinforcement : take away something unpleasant ie child taught take medicine when sick PUNISHMENT Any outcome weakening probability of response * Positive (administering stimulus) ie laughing at someone / negative (taking away stimulus) ie removing favourite toy Disadvantages: 1. Tells what NOT to do rather than what TO do 2. Increase emotions ie shame anxiety 3. Encourages subversive behaviour to become sneakier 4. May teach people to subjugate their needs in a manner that generalises ie not speaking up at all in worry of being punished 5. Unwittingly model undesirable behaviours DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS Any stimulus signalling presence of reinforcement AQUISITION EXTINCTION When stop delivering reinforcement to previously reinforced behaviour, gradually behaviour declines in frequency + disappears STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION When one stimulus leads to reinforcement and one does not STIMULUS GENERALISATION One stimulus is generalised to be similar to another PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT (intermittent reinforcement) when we reinforce responses only sometimes Principle * Behaviours we reinforce only occasionally slower to extinguish than those we reinforce continuously, greater resistance to extinction CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT Reinforcing behaviour every time it occurs SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 1. Consistency of administering reinforcement 2. Basis of administering reinforcement 3. Fixed ratio : reinforcement provided after # responses 4. Variable ratio : provide reinforcement after specific # responses on average but precise # responses required during any given period varies randomly 5. Fixed interval : provide reinforcement for producing response at least once after specified amount of time passed 6. Variable interval : we provide reinforcement for producing response after average time interval, with actual interval varying randomly APPLICATIONS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING 1. Animal training : shaping procedure - reinforces behaviour that are not target behaviour but progressively closer versions of it, chaining - link # interrelated behaviours to form longer series, each behaviour becomes cue 2. Token economy : systems set up in primary schools + psychiatric hospitals reinforcing appropriate behaviours + extinguishing inappropriate ones * Start by identifying target behaviours * Secondary reinforcement then implemented : neutral objects that become associated with primary reinforcers 3. COMPARING OPERANT CONDITIONING WITH CLASSICAL CONDITIONING SIMILARITIES * 2 process theory : need both CC + OC ro explain persistence of anxiety disorder, negative reinforcement usually occurs DIFFERENCES * CC based largely in amygdala * OC based in nucleus accumbens + related limbic systems linked to reward Cognitive models of learning 7.3a Outline evidence supporting latent learning + observational learning 7.3b Identify evidence of insight learning RADICAL BEHAVIOURISTS Thinking + emotion are behaviours, just not observable SOR psychologists * Link between S + R not mindless/automatic, instead organisms response to stimulus depends on what stimulus means to it * Do not deny that classical + operant conditioning occur but believe these forms of learning usually depend on thinking * Emphasise role of expectations in learning * Classical conditioning occurs only if CS regularly predicts occurrence of UCS. SOR Principle: * Helps explain phenomenon we have all encountered LATENT LEARNING Learning not observable, we learn many things without showing them * Diff between competence + performance OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Learning by watching others * Many cases learn by watching models : parents, teachers etc * Form of latent learning * 1960 Albert Bandura + colleagues demonstrated children can learn to act aggressively by watching aggressive role models Mirror neurons : in prefrontal cortex near motor cortex activate, they imagine what it would be like to perform a behaviour, play central role in empathy, MN differences play key role in autism characteristics INSIGHT LEARNING Wolfgang kohler TYPES OF LEARNING SIMPLE * Habituation : occurs when repeated stimulation produces a smaller response each time. * Sensitisation : occurs when repeated stimulation produces a greater response each time Differences to other types: Simple learning tends to be specific to one biological system (e.g., just the gill and siphon system in sea slugs). Biological systems involved in simple learning are often reflexes Simple learning is usually involuntary (i.e., you can’t control it) Simple learning does not usually last long (i.e., minutes or hours, max a few days) The change in behaviour is usually of a very restricted form GENERAL * Action → consequence (Operational Conditioning) * Event → consequence (classical conditioning) SPECIALISED * Imitation * Think, test, revise * Insight * Language learning * Imprinting some forms of specialised learning are restricted to only certain species – in contrast to general and simple learning, which seems to occur in the majority of animals. some forms of it only occur at specific times in an animals development. This is in contrast to general or simple learning, which can occur at most times in an animals life. TOPIC : WEEK 6, FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY about producing psychological knowledge (achieved through research), as well as applying this psychological knowledge to the law (through professional work). intersection between psychology + law * umbrella term that encompasses any way that psychological theories, research and knowledge can be applied to the law 2 key components 1. A research endeavour that examines aspects of human behaviour directly related to legal processes 2. A professional practice of psychology within or in consultation with a legal system SUBFIELDS OF FORENSIC PSYCHOLOGY CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on the study of crime and delinquency. Topics * understanding psychological theories of criminal behaviour * risk factors that predict the likelihood of reoffending. INVESTIGATIVE PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on the criminal investigative process Topics * criminal profiling * eyewitness memory * investigative interviewing * lie detection. POLICE PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on the work and wellbeing of police officers Topics * selection of police officers * public perceptions of police * psychological effects of policing LEGAL PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on legal proceedings Topics * expert witness testimony * jury decision-making * determining insanity. CORRECTIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Focuses on offender rehabilitation and reintegration Topics * use of treatment and educational programs. CASES ANDREW MALLARD Several eyewitnesses provided statements that placed Mallard at the crime scene on the day of the murder. When these witnesses initially gave their statements to police, they did not really suggest that Mallard was the perpetrator. However, after being repeatedly interviewed by police, these statements began to implicate Mallard. Once Mallard was brought in for questioning by police, he provided a false confession. A false confession is when an individual provides an admission of guilt for something that they did not do. WRONGFUL CONVICTIONS psychological factors can contribute to someone being wrongfully convicted of a serious crime The Innocence Project in the United States – an organisation that seeks to overturn wrongful convictions using DNA evidence - has revealed that two of the most common factors in wrongful convictions they have successfully overturned are mistaken eyewitness identifications (present in 69% of cases) and false confessions (present in 29% of cases) SYDNEY SIEGE whether Man Haron Monis, the perpetrator of the Lindt Café Siege, should have been identified as being at risk of committing further violent crimes, and therefore whether he should have been granted bail If Man Haron Monis was denied bail due to the belief that he was at risk of causing harm, the Sydney Siege would never have happened. RISK ASSESSMENT task of determining whether someone is at risk of reoffending. It is a very common part of the job of forensic psychologists; surveys of forensic psychologists in Australia and around the world indicate that risk assessments are some of the most common assessments psychologists conduct with offenders. Risk assessments may be conducted for many reasons, not just for deciding bail. They may be conducted to determine what type of sentence a convicted individual should receive, or to determine whether intervention would be effective to reduce reoffending. Any error in risk classification can have grave consequences, as the case of Man Haron Monis shows. TOPIC : WEEK 7, NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Identify the major lobes of the human brain and their main functions Identify the location of the major gyri and sulci in the cerebrum Identify the location of the primary motor area, the primary somatosensory area, and the areas involved in speech and language processing Understand the language and terminology of neuroanatomy NEUROPSYCHOLOGY TERMS * Superior - towards head * Inferior - towards feet * Anterior - front of body/brain * Posterior - back of body/brain * Horizontal animals - dorsal = back, ventral = abdominal region * Dorsal = superior part of brain * Ventral = inferior part of brain Animals swim/walk all 4s * Rostral = towards nose * Caudal = towards tail 3 planes of brain * Sagittal section = sliced down middle of brain * horizontal/transverse = section perpendicular to long axis of body * coronal/frontal = slice parallel to long axis of body * Medial - parts of brain closer to middle line * Lateral - parts of brain closer to sides cerebrum : bulk of brain mass-wise + most of what you see when you look at outside of whole brain. The cerebrum accounts for 85% of the brain and occupies the anterior and middle cerebral fossae. It is directly related to the cranial vault and is divided into two cerebral hemispheres that are joined at the bottom by the corpus callosum. The surface of the cerebrum is covered in a layer of grey matter; this cortex covers a core of white matter. Thick folds called gyri that form shallow grooves called sulci increase the surface area of the cerebrum. Several prominent sulci divide the cerebrum into 5 lobes; Lobes * Frontal * most anterior part of the cerebrum * lie above the orbits, extending posteriorly to the central sulci + below to lateral sulci. * involved in functions including motor function, problem solving, spontaneity, memory, language, initiation, judgment, impulse control, and social and sexual behavior. * Temporal * lie below the lateral sulci and are limited posteriorly by arbitrary lines from the preoccipital incisures to the parieto-occipital sulci. Each lateral surface is divided into three parallel gyri by two sulci: the superior and inferior sulci. * They are involved in the primary organization of sensory input. * Parietal * lie behind the central sulcus and above the lateral sulcus. An arbitrary line drawn from the parieto-occipital sulcus to the lateral sulcus forms their posterior margin. * They deal with touch, pain, proprioception (where our body is in space) and taste. * Occipital * form the most posterior part of the cerebrum. An arbitrary line joining the pre-occipital incisure to the parieto-occipital sulcus marks the anterior limit of each occipital lobe. * They form the centers of visual perception. Gyri : thick tissue folded into ridges are called gyri, grey matter of brain/brain cells. * white matter in brain can't see from outside = connections between cells. Sulci : grooves between gyri * important certain sulci act as landmarks in the brain to indicate where one lobe of the brain ends and the next one begins. Gyri + Sulci * Longitudinal fissure (runs front to back splitting the brain into two hemispheres) : * Central sulcus : The central sulcus lies between the postcentral and precentral gyri. It marks the border between the frontal and parietal lobes and the primary motor and somatosensory areas of the cortex. It runs downwards and forwards from the top of the hemisphere. * Precentral sulcus : The precentral sulcus lies anterior and parallel to the central sulcus, separated from it by the precentral gyrus. * Precentral gyrus : The precentral gyrus lies between the central and precentral sulci. It forms the posterior border of the frontal lobe and descends downwards and forwards from the top of the hemisphere to the posterior ramus of the lateral sulcus. Its cortex is the origin of many of the fibers of large corticonuclear and corticospinal tracts, in addition to a multitude of other connections. * Postcentral sulcus : The postcentral sulcus lies posterior and parallel to the central sulcus. Inferiorly, it ends above the posterior ramus of the lateral sulcus, some distance in front of its upturned end. It divides the parietal lobe into the postcentral gyrus and a large posterior area. * The sulci extend postero-inferiorly across the parietal lobe, dividing it into superior and inferior parietal lobules. Posteriorly, each sulcus extends into the occipital lobe as its occipital ramus, joining the transverse occipital sulcus at right angles. * Postcentral gyrus : The postcentral gyrus lies between the central and postcentral sulcus. It forms the anterior border of the parietal lobe and descends downwards and forwards from the top of the hemisphere. It forms the primary sensory cortex. * Posterior rami of lateral sulcus : The posterior ramus of the lateral sulcus extends posteriorly and upwards across the lateral surface of the hemisphere dividing it into parietal and temporal lobes. It terminates in the parietal lobe surrounded by the supramarginal gyrus. At the floor of the sulci is the uncus. * Broca's Area : Broca's area is as small portion of cortex located on the lateral and inferior portion of the frontal lobe near the primary motor cortex. Function It converts thoughts of words into a program of muscle movements either for the muscles of the mouth and throat to produce speech or for the hand to produce writing. * Wernicke's Area : Wernicke's area is a small area of cortex that lies at the border of the parietal, temporal and occipital lobes. Function Spoken or read words are processed and turned into meaningful ideas here; it is also where words are picked to convey ideas. * Prefrontal Cortex : The prefrontal cortex forms the anterior part of the frontal lobes of the cerebrum, lying in front of the motor and premotor areas. Function It decides on reactions to current events based on past experience and an appreciation of the rules of society. * Primary Motor Area : The primary motor area is located on the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe. Function It generates neural impulses that control the execution of movement; every part of the body is represented in the primary motor cortex, and these representations are arranged somatotopically. Motor homunculus The amount of brain matter devoted to any particular body part represents the amount of control that the primary motor cortex has over that body part. More cortical space is required to control the complex movements of the hand and fingers, and these body parts have larger representations than the trunk or legs, whose muscle patterns are relatively simple. This disproportionate map of the body in the motor cortex is called the motor homunculus. * Primary Somatosensory Area : The primary somesthetic area is found in the postcentral gyrus of the frontal lobe. Function It receives sensory information from the contralateral side of the body via the thalamus.Sensory homunculus Every part of the body is represented in the primary somesthetic area, and these representations are arranged somatotopically. The amount of cortex attributed to a body part is proportional to its sensitivity; a large amount of the cortex receives information from the hands and fingers. This disproportionate map of the body in the motor cortex is called the sensory homunculus. * Cerebellum : The cerebellar cortex is a thin sheet of neurons, which line the corrugated surface of the cerebellum. Function The cerebellar cortex is primarily involved with motor control. * Brainstem - Medulla Oblongata The medulla oblongata is the most inferior portion of the brainstem. It begins at the foramen magnum and descends for 3 cm before continuing inferiorly as the spinal cord. It consists of the pyramids and olives and contains ascending and descending nerve tracts, several nuclei and importantly the 'vital centers'. These function to regulate the vital involuntary reflexes such as heart rate, respiration, blood vessel diameter, swallowing, vomiting, sneezing and coughing. * Brainstem - Pons The pons is a rounded bulge found on the brainstem above the medulla oblongata and below the midbrain. The pons is 2.5 cm in length and is connected to the cerebellum posteriorly by the middle cerebellar peduncles. The site of transition with the medulla is marked by a transverse sulcus in which the abducent, facial and vestibulocochlear nerves emerge; the trigeminal nerve also arises from the lateral surface of the pons. The posterior surface of the pons forms the floor of the fourth ventricle. * Midbrain : The midbrain is the most superior section of the brainstem, joining the diencephalon to the pons. The caudal surface presents 4 raised lumps, the paired superior and inferior colliculi. The crus cerebri form the ventral surface. A narrow central canal, the cerebral aqueduct, travels through the midbrain, surrounded by a ring of gray matter. The midbrain includes the motor nuclei of the trochlear and oculomotor nerves, and the red nucleus. * Corpus Callosum : The corpus callosum is a C-shaped bundle of fibers that arches over the thalamus and ventricles, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres. It forms the base of the longitudinal fissure. It can be described as having the following areas: Genu Rostrum Trunk Splenium * Hypothalamus : The hypothalamus is a small area of the brain that lies below and either side of the anterior aspect of the third ventricle. It is constricted anteriorly by the optic chiasm and posteriorly by the mammillary bodies. Its inferior portion is stretched into a hollow stalk that attaches the pituitary gland. Function Through connections to the limbic system, hippocampus, striatum and brain stem it regulates emotions, autonomic control, hunger, satiety, immunity, memory input, and anger control. * Olfactory Bulb : The olfactory bulbs are found below the anterior end of the olfactory sulcus on the orbital surface of the frontal lobe. All of the information from the olfactory sensory neurons travels through the holes in the cribriform plate to reach the inferior surface of the bulbs. Other * Fosae - shallow depression on the bone surface, which may receive an articulating bone or act to support soft tissue structures TOPIC : WEEK 8, PERSONALITY PERSONALITY enduring patterns of thought, feeling, motivation and behaviour that are expressed in different circumstances PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY studies those aspects of a person's thoughts, feelings and behaviours that remain somewhat stable across different situations. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY examines how a situation has a similar effect on different types of people. GOOD EVIDENCE * Empirical does not = experimental * Personality is hard to research and experiments are often hard to conduct * There are many valid approaches that are still good science, even if they look a little different from what you might see in other sub-disciplines of psychology APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH CLINICAL 1. Focus : Involves the systematic, in-depth research of individuals 2. Methods : Observation (and self-report) 3. Significant Researchers : Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) First comprehensive theories of personality development 4. Strengths of the clinical approach * Observes a great variety of phenomena and often in detail (e.g., case studies) * Considers the functioning of whole person * Does not assume everyone has same degree of insight into their own functioning as self-report questionnaire measures do, seeks to find answers deeper than self-reported 5. Drawbacks * Difficult for others to confirm observations * May be difficult to formulate lab-style tests of hypotheses * Hard to replicate with questionnaires CORRELATIONAL 1. Focus : * Establishes association between sets of measures on which people have been found to differ * Not studying person as a whole, but relationships between elements * Are there basic groups of characteristics on which people differ? * Sought periodic table of elements of personality * Assumes trait is fundamental unit of personality 2. Methods : Measurement based on self-report questionnaires e.g., trait approach to personality, factor analysis (since 1940's) 3. Significant Researchers : Sir Francis Galton, explored differences due to heredity, especially intellectual abilities 4. Strengths * Self report is easy to use on large groups and is cost effective * Compares an individual to the average via numerical scores; has clinical utility 5. Drawbacks * Correlation does not equal causation * Factor analysis has subjective elements (e.g. what items are left in, how factors are named) * Vulnerable to potential distortions of self-report, (e.g. Self-deception, social desirability, response style) * Can't tap into unconscious processes (i.e. you can't report on what you don't know) but what you don't know about yourself may still influence your behaviour /bodily symptoms EXPERIMENTAL 1. Focus * Involves the systematic manipulation of variables to establish causal relationships * Not so much individual differences as general laws 2. Methods * experimental manipulation (neither of the other two approaches have this) * direct experimental control 3. Significant Researchers : Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936): Classical Conditioning Pioneer: Pavlov is best known for his work in classical conditioning, where he demonstrated how a neutral stimulus (such as a bell) could come to evoke a response (salivation) through repeated association with an unrelated stimulus (food). This laid the foundation for the study of learned responses in behavior. 4. Strengths * Close to scientific ideal * No need to worry about whether subject knows truth about self or is telling truth since don't rely on self-report 5. Weaknesses * Can you bring important features of personality into the lab (e.g. fantasies, unconscious desires etc.?) * Not in the context of the ‘whole person’ * Participants bring own expectations into lab * Participants alert to demand characteristics (i.e. what does the experimenter want them to do?) * Experiment is a social situation TEMPERAMENT TEMPERAMENT constellation of inborn traits that determine a child's unique behavioural style and the way he or she experiences and reacts to the world TEMPERAMENT VARIABLES attributes we typically see from early childhood that determine how that child experiences and reacts to the world 1. How one does something 2. Inhibition to the unfamiliar 3. Reactivity 4. Impulsivity 5. One’s vigor or energy level 6. The strength of one’s actions 7. Temporal features of a response 8. The rhythm of responding HERITABLE HERITABILITY meta-analysis suggests that traits are 40% heritable and 60% environmental * Although influence of genetics vs learned experience differs based on nature of trait * Anxiety traits - heritable * Levels of trust - significant learned component TRAITS TRAIT enduring characteristics that contribute to the consistency of an individual's behavior across different situations and over time. TRAIT THEORIES Based on premise, we all have enduring characteristics, personality = set of these characteristics TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY * very dominant approach currently but has its critics + its limitations * should analyse it with critical eye + work out for yourself what strengths + weaknesses you think this approach has * possible to have an eclectic approach, seeing personality from variety of perspectives. EXAMPLES OF TRAITS * Extraversion * Conscientiousness * Willingness to trust others * Emotional stability MEASURING TRAITS * Whole personality - NEO PI-R, Tellegen’s MPQ * Single personality traits/constructs e.g. extraversion only TRAIT APPROACH ASSUMPTIONS 1. All people have such enduring characteristics or traits 2. Personality can best be described as a set of these characteristics 3. Normally distributed 4. Self-report measures can measure the level to which a person has a certain trait 5. Traits occur in every individual at levels that can be mapped on a continuum from low to high 6. Traits are normally distributed across the general population 7. Traits do not change much over the adult lifespan Stability overtime 1. important assumption in the trait approach is that traits are an enduring and stable part of personality that do not change much over the adult lifespan. 2. Indeed Costa and McCrae (1994) suggested that human personalities were “set in plaster” by the age of 30 3. Because they believe that personality can be reduced to a finite number of factors, and that these factors are stable over time, theorists and researchers from this perspective rely heavily on self-report tests of personality. 4. Eysenck, Cattell, Costa and McCrae and others from the trait perspective have all developed self-report tests for ‘full personality’ 5. Obviously these tests, which are often quite expensive, have far less utility if the characteristics of the person tested are not stable over time, or if the tests do not reliably predict behaviour in a given situation. HERITABILITY OF TRAITS * Trait models often emphasise the heritability (genetic component) of traits. * However, as noted earlier in this module, it is clear that environment also plays a substantial role in personality trait development, and seems to be more influential than genetics. * It is also clear that the influence of genetics and experience differ according to the nature of the trait: * Some traits like openness to experience and intelligence are consistently found to have a higher heritability component than most traits, although environment still plays a greater role; * Some traits like conscientiousness seem to have a comparatively smaller genetic contribution and appear to have a significant learned component. NOMOTHETIC APPROACH seeks to identify common traits found universally across individuals (ie levels of extraversion) + understand how these traits influence an individual’s behaviour by comparing individual with wider population. 1. Assumes levels of particular traits occur on continuum (low to high) in all people, + are normally distributed in the general population. 2. Compares level of a particular trait in an individual to levels of that trait found in wider population. 3. Makes deductions about that person’s personality from that comparison IDIOGRAPHIC APPROACH focuses on understanding and explaining the unique and individual characteristics, experiences, and qualities of a particular person, emphasizing the richness and complexity of individual cases rather than generalizing across a population. * Whereas the nomothetic approach compares individual scores to wider norms, the idiographic approach emphasises the uniqueness of the individual * In this approach, different methods (e.g., detailed case studies and observations) may be preferred to assess an individual’s unique characteristics. BIG 5 TRAITS 1. Openness to experience Fantasy (active fantasy life), Aesthetics (artistic interests), Feelings (emotionally open), Actions (flexible in behavioural responses), Ideas (intellectual), Values (unconventional) 2. Conscientiousness Competence, Order, Dutifulness, Achievement striving, Self-discipline, Deliberation 3. Extraversion Warmth, Gregariousness (outgoing nature), Assertiveness, Activity, Excitement seeking, Positive emotion 4. Agreeableness Trust, Straightforwardness, Altruism, Compliance, Modesty, Tenderness 5. Neuroticism Anxiety, Angry hostility, Depression, Self-consciousness, Impulsivity, Vulnerability FREUD TOPOGRAPHIC MODEL Freud suggested that alongside the conscious mind was an unconscious and a pre-conscious. Importantly, what is in the unconscious can impact our thoughts, feelings, behaviours and body just like what is in conscious awareness. DRIVE MODEL Freud outlined the importance of key drives on behaviour and the conflicts that arise when a person’s drives do not accord with social norms for behaviour. In his early work he emphasised self-preserving drives such as hunger, thirst and temperature regulation, and species-preserving drives such as the libido or sex drive. In his later work he theorised a thanatos or death drive, which manifests as aggressive or self-harming behaviour and which he saw as being in conflict with the earlier life-based drives like the libido. STRUCTURAL MODEL Freud posited the psychological structure of a pleasure-seeking Id, a conscience like Superego that provides moral constraints, and an Ego, the self in the present that tries to satisfy the wants of the Id within the constraints of the situation and of the Superego. Remember, these terms are translations from the original German that may lose some of the original meaning. Freud talked about ‘das Es’ (the it), ‘Ich’ (I) and ‘Über-Ich’ (over-I) to describe the id, ego and superego. In my mind, thinking of the Ego as the I or ‘self’ is helpful. PSYCHOSEXUAL MODEL perhaps the first detailed theory of personality development, and spells out the ways in which a person’s interactions with close caregivers influences their personality development. This is a stage theory, starting with the oral stage as an infant, followed by anal, phallic, latency and genital stages. This is perhaps Freud’s most controversial theory. FREUD’S DEFENCE MECHANISMS * Repression * Denial * Projection * Reaction formation * Sublimation * Rationalisation * Displacement * Regression * Passive aggression * Isolation * Undoing * Identification with aggressor - stockholm syndrome * reversal PERSONALITY TESTS PSYCHOANALYTIC TESTING 1. Word association test 2. Life-history methods 3. Projective tests 4. Analysis of transference 5. Hypnosis 6. Dream interpretation Strengths Strong empirical support for some processes, including the importance of: 1. Unconscious cognitive, emotional and motivational processes 2. Ambivalence in intrapersonal conflict 3. Childhood experiences in shaping adult patterns of interacting with others 4. Mental models of self and others 5. Ability to regulate impulses; Defences Weaknesses 1. "Much psychodynamic theory has insufficient basis in scientifically sound observation” (Westen et al., 2011) 2. Some theorised processes hard to prove or disprove scientifically 3. Some aspects of the psychosexual stages theory (Oedipus and Electra complex; penis envy) have been heavily criticized 4. May discount too much the learning we do as adults SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY emphasises personality that develops through experience, through the way those experiences are laid down in the brain, and through the development of stable patterns of responding to things. Strengths: 1. Acknowledge the role of thoughts, memories, neural networks in the brain in personality 2. Readily testable through experimentation 3. Applied value (therapies, change framework) 4. Most events in our lives involve the person (and everything that the person is) encountering a situation and responding according to their own psychological make-up and the salient aspects of the situation Weaknesses: 1. Have been criticised for emphasising the rational at the expense of the emotional, motivational, and irrational 2. Some think this analysis is too narrow 3. Modern approaches (e.g. Young; Greenberg) clearly emphasise the role of emotions 4. Bargh emphasises the role of unconscious information processing; unconscious goals 5. Increasing recognition of motivational aspects 6. Has been criticised for the underlying assumption that people “know what they think, feel and want, and hence can report it”. 7. This may be a fair criticism in some cases, however: it should be noted though, that Bargh (and others, including researchers at Macquarie) do not take this approach, and there is an increasing interest in unconscious and implicit processes. SCHEMA mental outline or framework of some aspect of experience, which is based on prior experience or memory * provide the mental glasses through which we see the world and evaluate what is happening in it. * a group of nodes with associative links that are so strong that the activation of any node/concept within it will begin to activate the entire schema network (Knowledge (e.g., attributes), Beliefs, Emotions, Memories, Links to other concepts, thoughts, feelings, emotions, Ways to respond; action tendencies) YOUNG’S 18 MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS 1. Abandonment schema 2. mistrust/abuse schema 3. Emotional deprivation schema 4. Social isolation schema 5. defectiveness/shame schema 6. Failure schema 7. Subjugation schema 8. Entitlement schema SCHEMA THERAPY therapy for personality disorders based on changing entrenched schemas * Schemas are challenged and new patterns of thinking established over a significant period of therapy (often 2-3+ years) SCRIPT THEORY script is a schema about how a particular event plays out over time Throughout development people are exposed to and internalise various scripts for behaviour SOCIAL COGNITIVE APPROACH * Emphasises rational thought, but more recent research investigates non-conscious and automatic processes (e.g., John Bargh) * many models * well-respected model - Anderson + Bushman (2002) General Aggression Model HUMANISTIC APPROACHES Strengths: * Unique emphasis on meaningful existence * Most humanistic approaches are positive about human nature * Interested in the unique person and their unique experiences * Definite applications for therapy and findings ways to change oneself * Focuses on reaching potential Weaknesses: * Not a comprehensive theory of personality (either what it comprises or how it develops) * Many approaches within this umbrella not testable (or falsifiable) * Little empirical evidence * Rogers is one exception * Some argue this approach is too idealistic and not grounded enough in reality PERSONALITY TEST PROBLEMS * Tests may need further refinement * Adult personalities not quite so set in stone * Mood + current thoughts may override * Personality test may not capture all relevant features influencing particular behaviour PERSONALITY TEST STRENGTHS * Testing job applicants * Clinical assessment * Suitability for certain roles/tasks * Entertainment * research BARNUM EFFECT People have tendency to believe general + ambiguous statements are descriptive of their unique personalities Stronger if * Feedback is pos * Source reputable * Participant younger ACCEPTANCE PHENOMENON General tendency for people to accept almost any personality feedback as applying to them SELF SERVING BIAS * Ascribing successes to internal personal characteristics & failures to external situational causes * May help to underpin sense of self worth + be essential for wellbeing REAL WORLD Taking advantage - Astrologers, Fortune tellers, Faith healers Assist - Positive therapeutic outcomes - increasing their positive attitude towards their self talk TOPIC : WEEK 9, PSYCHOPATHOLOGY FACTS 1 in 2 people will meet diagnostic criteria for a mental health disorder by the time they reach 18 years of age ABNORMALITY INDICATORS 1. Subjective distress * Although people experiencing depression and excessive anxiety report subjective distress, those experiencing mania do not. Additionally, you may experience distress about an upcoming test, but we would hardly call that abnormal. Thus distress is neither sufficient or necessary as a condition for determining abnormality. 2. Maladaptiveness * Maladaptive behaviour interferes with our wellbeing. Sometimes the behavior is maladaptive for the individual (e.g., someone restricting their food intake may need to be hospitalized as they have become emaciated) and sometimes it is maladaptive for others (when someone cons another person out of their lifesavings). * Behaviour that interferes with our wellbeing and others', however, isn't always abnormal. People grieving after the loss of a loved one may cry, stay in bed, and cook less than usual. But no one would say this behaviour is abnormal. 3. Statistical deviancy Not everything statistically rare is abnormal (having a high IQ). Not every behavior that violates standards of society is considered abnormal (parking illegally is common), so we often consider statistical deviancy in tandem with the next indicator "violation of standards of society". 4. Violation of standards of society When someone violates an implicit or unwritten social rule, those around them may experience discomfort. For example, if someone gets on an empty bus and sits right next to you. There is no law that says they can’t sit right next to you, but if you do not know who they are, you may feel quite uncomfortable. 5. Irrationality and unpredictability If someone sitting next to you begins to scream and shout, you might consider that behavior abnormal because it seems to come out of nowhere. But if you saw a brown snake slither past it might make sense to you. On the other hand, if you saw the person was screaming because of a cockroach, you might think the behavior is irrational. But who knows, some would argue that these things are the devil. 6. Dangerousness We also need to consider if a person is a danger to themself or another person. But few people with a mental illness are a danger to themselves or others, whereas people who have no signs of a mental disorder commit crimes everyday. MENTAL HEALTH State of emotional and social wellbeing. Its when Individuals can cope with the normal stresses of life. MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS Emotional and behavioural abnormalities which impair functioning. MENTAL DISORDER Clinically recognisable symptoms that cause distress and impair functioning, generally requiring treatment. FACTORS LEADING TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 1. Biological (Genetic vulnerabilities, Gene-environment interactions, Neurotransmitter imbalance) * Excitatory neurotransmitter : type of neurotransmitter that promotes the generation of electrical signals in the receiving neuron, making it more likely for that neuron to fire an action potential * Inhibitory neurotransmitter : type of neurotransmitter that tends to decrease the likelihood of the receiving neuron firing an action potential * Glutamate : excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning and memory. Too much glutamate is implicated in schizophrenia. * GABA : inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps regulate anxiety. Low levels of GABA are associated with high levels of arousal/anxiety. * Serotonin : mostly an inhibitory neurotransmitter that is involved in thinking and processing information from the environment, and helps to regulate mood. Too little serotonin may be associated with depression * Dopamine : plays a role in pleasure and reward, attention and focus, and learning and memory. Dopamine can have both excitatory and inhibitory effects. Too much dopamine is linked to having poor impulse control. PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE (FREUD) 1. Object relations : Example: A child might have a very strict father and may then internalize images of their punishing father. That image might then become a harsh self-critic, influencing how the child behaves. 2. Interpersonal Perspective : Example: A child might have difficulty making friends at school. This difficulty may be viewed to be the result of her family environment and economic factors. Perhaps her family discourages emotional expression and has limited funds for extracurricular activities. Both may limit the child’s ability to participate in social activities. 3. Attachment Theory : Example: An adolescent may struggle with intimacy and closeness in relationships, fearing vulnerability and potential rejection. This person may be highly attuned to any signs that close others may be pulling away (whether real or imagined). When these signs are noticed, the person may try to evoke guilt or pity in the other party to keep the relationship going. BEHAVIOURAL PERESPECTIVE focuses on observable behaviour and the reinforcing properties of behaviour. * This perspective emphasises the role of learning, conditioning, and environmental factors in the development and maintenance of maladaptive behaviour Factors: 1. Classical conditioning 2. Operant conditioning COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE mental activities such as perception, attention, memory, and problem-solving. * examines how these processes may be altered or unhelpful in individuals with psychological disorders. * Information-processing bias is evident when an individual processes information in a given cognitive domain (e.g., memory, interpretation) in an unhelpful way. * Cognitive distortions : irrational and biased ways of thinking that can contribute to negative emotions and unhelpful behaviour. CHARACTER STRUCTURE MODEL theory based in the psychodynamic perspective. * character structures thought to develop in response to early life experiences and play a role in shaping an individual's personality. * Some of assumptions, of the theory are similar to Attachment Theory, E.G. both theories posit that small infants need their basic needs met. If they regularly get their basic needs met, they will grow up feeling safe. If they do not, they will grow up distrustful and anxious and feel disconnected from others. BODY DYNAMIC THEORY offshoot of the Character Structure Model. * assumption of this Bodynamic theory is that character deficiencies will result if overwhelming emotional stress existed early within a phase of development. Character deficiencies are marked by a loss of emotional and psychological skills, as well as somatic issues, like a loss of energy. MENTAL HEALTH DISORDERS * Categories/dimensional approach * DSM commonly used * ICD used internationally BIPOLAR Symptoms * extreme mood swings, ranging from periods of intense highs (mania or hypomania) to periods of deep lows (depression) * Unpredictability in mood + energy * Manic energy/restlessness * Rapid thoughts/speech * Less need for sleep * Bipolar 1 - usually one episode maybe more * Bipolar 2 - many episodes Prevelance * 2% population around 500,000 * 1.8% males + 1.7% females had BPD in recent 12 months * 16-24 yrs 3.2% males 3.6% females in lifetime Treatment * Medication * CBT * Interpersonal therapy * psychotherapy MAJOR DEPRESSION Symptoms * Low self esteem * Worthlessness * Fatigue * Sleep changes * Weight changes * Reoccurring thoughts of death/suicide * Overwhelming feeling of nothingness * Distant from everyone/everything * Constant Stress * Passing out * Lack of motivation Prevalence * 5% population, adults 4% men 8% among women * Women more likely than men Australian National Survey of mental health + wellbeing * Household survey * Any mental disorder 12 month prevalence rate 20% lifetime prevalence 45% Treatments * Medication * CBT * Interpersonal therapy * psychotherapy SCHIZOPHRENIA Symptoms * Behavioural - not eating, social isolation, lack of self care * Cognitive - * Psychological - hallucinations, paranoia, delusions * Speech - speech disorders Prevalence * 1/300 people, 0.32% population Australian Survey of people living with psychotic illness * 1.5 mill 18-64 yr olds house hold survey * 1 month treated prevalence of psychotic disorders 0.35% * 12 month treated prevalence 64,000 people Treatments * Medication * CBT * psychotherapy SOCIAL ANXIETY Symptoms * Anxiety * Rapid heart beating * Avoiding social situations * Fear of negative evaluation Prevalence * 12 month 7%, lifetime 11% Treatment * CBT * Interpersonal therapy * psychotherapy TOPIC : WEEK 11, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in a social context scientific study of how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by actual, imagined or symbolically represented presence of other people. APPROACHES 1. Heart - motivated by the need to maintain positive self-regard. Our need to belong, we are social creatures 2. Mind - another need that we have to be accurate, to be consistent, and to feel that we know and can predict the world around us THE STUDY 1. Social cognition : way people think about themselves and the social world. how we select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions 2. The self : One of major needs or drives that we have is to know the self and to have relatively positive regard for the self. E.g. self concept, self awareness, self knowledge, self esteem, functions of the self, cultural differences, impression management 3. Close relationships : where developmental psychology and cognitive psychology will overlap with social psychology. Attachment bonds that form between caregivers and children and then emerge again later as patterns of behavior as adults. intimate relationship/how we approach world more broadly. 4. Prosociality + Aggression : two ends of a spectrum. Pro-social behaviors : helping, altruistic + empathic behaviors. Attitudes: formed as result of our evaluations of object, person, place/idea. (Implicit and subtle OR Explicit). 5. Social Influence : influencing others on a spectrum. Conformity - Getting people to change their perceptions, their opinions or their behavior to be consistent with social or group norms. Compliance - Getting someone to do something. following the request of another person, regardless of who they are. Obedience - Compliance that occurs in response to authority, expertise or someone who's in a higher social path. 6. Groups : might talk about how to groups form and what keeps them together. 7. Application + Intervention : Social psychologists have worked over the years to have empirically grounded research drive real world interventions. Law : to reduce bias. How do implicit biases play out in the justice system, jury decision making and eyewitness testimony. Education : how do we improve learning experiences of all children? Healthcare : health disparities, access to health care, adherence to interventions. e.g. How do you get a kid to take their insulin when there's a real stigma associated with it. STIGMA shared beliefs about undesirable attributes Goffman’s types of stigma 1. Tribal identities : (social groups) born into them or join them. Religion, ethnicity, nationality, gender, sexual identity. 2. Abominations of the body : It might be physical disability, illness, paralysis 3. Blemishes of individual character : ie mental health or drug addiction, but there's a tendency to have a sort of moral tone. The targets perspective 1. Individual level 2. Interpersonal level 3. societal/institutional level STEREOTYPES, DISCRIMINATION, PREJUDICE ABCS * Affective component: Prejudice : hostile or negative attitude towards people in a distinguishable group based solely on their membership in that group. Type of emotion linked with attitude (e.g., anger, warmth) Extremity of the attitude (e.g., mild uneasiness, outright hostility) Origins : Economic perspective * By relying on our social categories, our groupings and our stereotypes (which are essentially just schemas) about a particular group allows us to be economical or efficient in our processing of information. Unfortunately, this can then lead to biases or errors. Realistic group conflict theory * Competition for scarce resources tends to increase conflict among groups * Vying for a limited resource results in prejudice and discrimination * Leads to a differentiation between us and them * Prejudice is an inevitable consequence of real conflict over scarce resources * Resources can be physical, economic, conceptual, ideological. * Hostile overt conflict increases ethnocentrism. * The strongest prejudices often come from the group that feel they have the most to lose Motivational Perspective * Social identity theory * Tajfel and Turner argue that people derive a sense of self, in part, from the groups of which they are members. This could be their tribal, political or ideological affiliations. A large part of how we see ourselves and our self-regard relies upon that group membership. They argue that people are motivated to see the groups they belong to as positive and the groups they don't belong to as less positive because it helps protect the self or even boost the self-esteem (see the image below). * Minimal Groups take people who had never met and randomly put them into groups and assign the group tasks. They found that people behaved as if the members of that same group were friends or family. People would give higher ratings or show greater liking for members of this new group of strangers than the people not in the group. They were more pleasant and allocated more resources to their group members while being more negative towards other groups. They've shown that individuals enhance their self-esteem by identifying with particular social groups and tend to exaggerate differences between in-groups and out-groups which helps to form and reinforce stereotypes. Along with this comes in-group bias which is the tendency to favour members of their own group, seeing them as unique and different while seeing all members of the out-group as very similar. Possible explanations for his behaviour include: 1. The fight over limited resources. 2. Humans have limited cognitive capacity. 3. They are looking for efficiency 4. They need to protect the self Scapegoating * When frustrated or unhappy, people tend to displace aggression onto groups that are disliked, visible, and relatively powerless. Frustration-aggression theory * Theory that aggressive acts are caused by feelings of frustration. * Frustration as a motivation for prejudice * Frustration increases general levels of aggression, not necessarily directed at any specific target. However, it may be safer to target aggression at individuals or groups that are lower in power. Frustrations coming from unrelated sources may be displaced onto low-power individuals or social groups. The form of aggression dependent on what the frustrated group approves of or allows. Behavioral component: Discrimination * How people act on emotions and cognitions Cognitive component: Stereotype Beliefs or thoughts that make up the attitude Cooperation and interdependence Sherif's Robber’s Cave experiment showed that cooperation and interdependence can lead to improved intergroup relations. In the experiment, neutral situations showed that contact was not enough, but superordinate goals helped improve relations. Examples of superordinate goals include working together to provide drinking water, choosing a film to watch, or rescuing a truck with food “stuck in a rut.” Jigsaw Classroom Another way to improve intergroup relations is through the Jigsaw Classroom approach, which was used in 5th-grade classrooms in Texas and California that were newly desegregated. The approach involved placing children in small, racially and academically diverse groups where each child was dependent on others to learn the course material and do well. Students in these groups liked each other and school more, were less prejudiced, had higher self-esteem, and achieved equal academic success regardless of their racial or academic backgrounds. The success of this approach is based on breaking down the perception of in-group and out-group and creating a feeling of “oneness.” People must do each other “favors” by sharing information and developing empathy for others. ATTITUDES Attitudes are favourable or unfavourable evaluative reactions towards something. Affective component : involves feelings or emotions associated with the attitude object. For instance, feeling anxious or tense when encountering a snake. Behavioural component : refers to actions or behaviour in response to the object. For example, avoiding snakes or refusing to touch them. Cognitive component : involves thoughts or beliefs about the object. For instance, knowing that snakes are soft and smooth and that they control rodents. FORMATION OF ATTITUDES 1. EXPOSURE Experiment 1 : Known as mere exposure (Zajonc, 1968). In 1968 Zajonc recruited participants for a "foreign language experiment" involving the presentation of Chinese characters. Experiment 2 : Mita et al. (1977) took photos of women on campus and then showed the women their actual photos and a mirror image version. * 2/3 of women preferred their mirror image photo * 2/3 of their close friends preferred the actual print * Neither knew that one of the photos had been altered Attitudes can develop outside rational thought and influence our judgments. 2. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING If a conditioned stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US), the CS can evoke an attitude response that is similar to that evoked by the US. Coca-cola ads (see the example below) are a perfect example of this. When you see images of people drinking Coca-Cola and having a great time. CS is Coca-Cola US is having a great time great These are paired together so that you think of great times when you see Coca-Cola. Your attitude towards that brand is more positive. 3. OPERANT CONDITIONING Rewarded or reinforced behaviour is more likely to be repeated in the future, but behaviour that is not rewarded or is punished is less likely to reoccur. So the child might be rewarded (given attention) for expressing attitudes that are consistent with her parent’s attitudes on politics etc. 4. IMITATION Adopting the attitudes of role models e.g. a child adopting the attitudes of older siblings simply because they look up to them. 5. BEM’S SELF PERCEPTION THEORY A very different perspective on how we form our attitudes is that we infer our attitudes from our behaviour This theory asserts that attitudes don’t cause behaviour, but behaviour causes attitudes The theory downplays the importance of deliberation and introspection in the formation of attitudes We are observers of our own behaviour and attribute it to either an external situation or internal attitude. For example: Consider the question “Do you like ice cream?” In order to answer that question you might think of instances where you have eaten ice cream and look at whether that was a positive or negative experience. In this way, your behaviour informs your attitude. Getting a person to sign a petition is a behaviour that can influence a future attitude about whether to donate to the cause. Attitude inferences are more likely if the behaviour is freely chosen (not coerced) Bem’s theory seems to work best for weak or poorly defined attitudes. SUB INFLUENCES ON ATTITUDES 1. Facial expression (Strack et al., 1988) 2. Testing the quality of headphones (Wells and Petty, 1980) 3. Pulling up vs. pushing down (Cacioppo et al. 1993) FUNCTIONS OF ATTITUDES * maintaining cognitive consistency: people strive to maintain consistency, order, and agreement between their attitudes and beliefs. Heider’s Balance theory * According to Heider’s (1946) Balance Theory, a balance must exist between interpersonal relationships so that psychological harmony can occur. * Heider’s elements : P — the person, O — the other, X — the attitude object   * Balance Theory also suggests that we would like someone for no better reason than they are the enemy of our enemy?   IMPLICIT ATTITUDES VS EXPLICIT ATTITUDES Implicit attitudes : gut feelings, automatic and non-conscious and difficult to change. So these are less susceptible to efforts to impression manage. Explicit attitudes : consciously controlled + easier to change + hence subject to social desirability. IMPROVING ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOUR RELATIONSHIP 1. There may be social influence on expressed attitudes. We sometimes say what we think others want to hear (e.g. employees filling in a questionnaire about the workplace) 2. To see the true attitude-behaviour relationship we need to make sure we are measuring attitudes that are specific to the observed behaviour. For example, one's attitude towards recycling rather than their attitude towards environmental issues in general would be a good predictor of recycling behaviour. (Oskamp, 1991) 3. Personal involvement and knowledge strengthen the attitude-behaviour link. For example: The more respondents knew about environmental issues, the more likely they were to participate in pro-environment activities (Kallegren & Wood, 1986) THEORY OF PLANNED BEHAVIOUR Ajzen & Fishbein (1980) The first is attitudes, which are an individual's overall evaluation of the behaviour. The second is subjective norms, which consist of a person's beliefs about whether significant others think he/she should engage in the behaviour The third measures the extent to which the individual perceives that the behaviour is under their personal control COGNITIVE DISSONANCE THEORY Leon Festinger’s (1957) feeling of discomfort caused by performing an action that is inconsistent with one’s attitudes. When this dissonance occurs, we strive to reduce it. We could change our behaviour to be consistent with the attitude or change the attitude to be consistent with the behaviour—but it’s usually easier to change our attitude. So, cognitive dissonance theory asserts that rationalisation about our inconsistency shapes attitudes.  EXAMPLES COGNITIVE DISSONANCE 1. INSUFFICIENT JUSTIFICATION + DISSONANCE Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) 2. THE BEN FRANKLIN EFFECT - “He that has once done you a kindness will be more ready to do you another, than he whom you yourself have obliged.” 3. JUSTIFICATION + EFFORT DISSONANCE - Aronson and Mills, 1959 study on initiation later affecting decisions 4. AMNESICS + DISSONANCE - Lieberman et al., 2001 Do we need to remember the discrepancy between the attitude and the behaviour to keep up the new attitude? Dissonance effect: paintings that were initially liked were liked more on the subsequent evaluation and those that were initially disliked were disliked even more. Once committed to a particular attitude or course of action, we tend to emphasize the positive aspects of that attitude and the negative aspects of the alternatives in order to minimise dissonance. Importantly: Even amnesics do this. So cognitive dissonance doesn’t require conscious awareness PERSUASION message intended to change an attitude and related behaviour of an audience.  1. MESSAGE LEARNING "Yale Group" (Hovland, Janis, Kelley, Kelman, and Sherif) Attend to the message Comprehend the message Accept the message Factors influencing persuasion : Source variables (who is delivering the message) Message variables - including medium/channel variables (what kind of message is being delivered and how is the message being delivered) Audience variables (to whom is the message being delivered) 2. ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL Many of these source, message and audience variables interact and tend to implicate two types of processing: Careful processing Superficial processing 2 Pathways to convincing people 1. When people are motivated and able to attend carefully, they carefully analyse the persuasive communication, which is called the central route to persuasion. 2. When people are unwilling or unable to analyse message content, they rely on heuristics or irrelevant cues, which is called the peripheral route to persuasion. NUDGES inexpensive behavioural strategies to increase desirable behaviours 1. PRINCIPLES FOR ENHANCING COMPLIANCE Cialdini et al. * Reciprocity * Social proof * Flattery * Scarcity * Consistency 2. CONSIDERATIONS * Cialdini says that these persuasion tactics and phenomena were so effective because we so often rely on short-cuts when processing information (e.g. expensive is good) * CONFORMITY not just acting as others act; it is being affected by how they act; it is acting differently to the way you would if you were alone.It is a change in behaviour or belief in accord with others Compliance : subtype of conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request, while inwardly disagreeing. Obedience : compliance with a direct command Acceptance : conformity that involves believing as well as acting in accord with social pressure. 1. NORMATIVE SOCIAL INFLUENCE norms of a culture : social forces that exert a powerful, although often unrecognised, pressure on individuals to conform 2. AUTOKINETIC ILLUSION Sherif (1935) 3. SUGGESTABILITY 4. ASCHS CONFORMITY STUDIES Asch (1955) * Study of perceptual judgments * The participant is seated 6th in a row of 7 people * The experimenter holds up a card and asks which of the three lines matches the standard. OBEDIENCE 1. MILGRAM'S OBEDIENCE STUDIES Milgram wanted to conduct an experiment like Asch’s but see if the group could pressure the participants to deliver shocks to a protesting victim. He needed a baseline control condition first to see how many people would deliver shocks without the group pressure. MINIMAL GROUP PARADIGM Bonds between strangers form readily + easily TOPIC : WEEK 12, BIOPSYCHOLOGY BRAIN REGIONS OF REPTILE The mammalian brain evolved "around" reptilian brain. STRATIUM 1. involved in motor control and coordination. 2. receives input from sensory systems + other brain areas, helping to plan + execute movements. 3. crucial in reptiles to allow them to navigate environment, hunt, + respond to threats. THALAMUS relay station for integrating sensory input. It receives + processes signals from various sensory modalities, relaying them to higher brain areas for further processing. SUPERIOR COLLICULUS 1. responsible for processing visual information 2. crucial role in orienting eyes + body toward visual stimuli, contributing to ability to detect + respond to visual cues. INFERIOR COLLICULUS receives + integrates signals related to sound, helping to localise + respond to auditory stimuli in environment. BRAINSTEM 1. controls basic autonomic functions : heart rate, breathing, digestion. 2. connects spinal cord to higher brain structures + pathway for sensory + motor information. PONS 1. regulating various autonomic functions. 2. controlling breathing, + connections to other brain areas contribute to basic motor functions. MEDULLA responsible for vital functions ie heartbeat, blood pressure regulation, + respiratory control. CEREBRAL CORTEX 1. responsible for wide range of higher cognitive functions. 2. (conscious thought, language, perception, voluntary movement, crucial for complex mental processes + problem-solving. FRONTAL CORTEX 1. wide range of higher cognitive functions, including decision-making, problem-solving, + social interactions. 2. crucial for controlling impulses, regulating emotions, managing complex behaviors related to goal-directed actions. MOTOR CORTEX 1. rear of frontal lobes 2. responsible for planning + executing voluntary movements 3. central role in coordinating muscle activity + translating neural signals into physical actions. PARIETAL CORTEX 1. processing sensory information from various parts of body, particularly related to the sense of touch + spatial awareness 2. helps us perceive + integrate sensations ie pressure, temperature + pain. TEMPORAL CORTEX 1. associated with auditory processing + crucial for our ability to hear + understand sounds. 2. aspects of memory formation + language comprehension. OCCIPITAL CORTEX 1. back of the brain, responsible for processing visual information. 2. vital role in interpretation of visual stimuli, allowing perceive + understand surrounding environment. LIMBIC SYSTEM 1. complex network of structures involved in emotions, memory, and motivation. 2. plays a crucial role in regulating various emotional responses, forming memories, + influencing decision-making. ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS OF BODY ANTERIOR/ ROSTRAL Towards front of head +/ brain. NEUROAXIS central line of the nervous system. * imaginary line running longitudinally through spinal cord + brain, from lower end of spinal cord to front of forebrain. VENTRAL Front of body DORSAL Back of body POSTERIOR/CAUDAL structures closer to the tail end of the body. MEDIAL parts of body nearer to centre. LATERAL parts of body nearer to sides. ANATOMICAL DIRECTIONS OF HEAD + BRAIN 1. Superior/Dorsal : top of head + brain 2. Dorsal : used for back of spinal cord 3. Anterior/Rostral : front of head + brain 4. Posterior/Caudal : back of head + brain 5. Inferior/Caudal : bottom of head 6. Ventral : lower part of brain/front of spinal cord BRAIN’S ANATOMICAL PLANES 1. Coronal plane : perpendicular to ground + divides brain into anterior (rostal/front) + posterior (caudal/back) portions. 2. Sagittal plane : perpendicular to ground + runs front to back, dividing brain into right + left hemispheres. 3. Horizontal plane : parallel to ground + divides brain into superior (dorsal/upper) + inferior (ventral/lower) parts. NERVOUS SYSTEM complex and intricate network of cells that play a crucial role in controlling and coordinating the functions of the body NEURONS : communicates through which transmit nerve impulses, supported by glial cells, providing communication, structural + nutritional support. CENTRAL NS CNS consists of brain + spinal cord, both housed + protected by skull + vertebral column * brain = command centre of NS responsible for processing information, making decisions, + coordinating various bodily functions. * spinal cord = communication highway between brain + rest of body. * crucial role in reflex actions. PERIPHERAL NS PNS includes all nerves + ganglia (clusters of nerve cells) outside CNS. Somatic Nervous System: * Controls voluntary movements + sensory information. * Transmits signals between CNSand skeletal muscles. Autonomic Nervous System: * Regulates involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate. * Further divided into sympathetic + parasympathetic divisions, often have opposing effects to maintain balance (homeostasis) in body. 1. Sympathetic division : * Function: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" response in stressful or emergency situations. * Effects: Increases heart rate, dilates the pupils, inhibits digestion, and mobilizes energy resources. * looks after the four fs – flight, fight, fright, fornicate (sex) * Extends from the thoracic and lumbar spine. * Short preganglionic nerves * Long postganglionic nerves. 2. Parasympathetic division : * Function: Promotes the "rest and digest" response, and also helps the body to relax and recover after a stressful situation. * Effects: Slows heart rate, constricts pupils, stimulates digestion, conserves energy, involved in promoting growth * Parasympathetic nervous system is more involved in non-emergency things - digesting food, growth, your immune responses, storing energy in the body * Extends from cranium and sacral spine (craniosacral) * Long preganglionic nerves * Short postganglionic nerves. TYPES OF NEURONS (PERIPHERAL NERVES) crucial part of NS + vital role in facilitating communication between CNS (brain +spinal cord) + rest of body. FUNCTION : 1. SENSORY * PN contain sensory nerve fibers that gather info from body's external environment (ie pain) + internal conditions (ie position of muscles + joints) * Secondly, peripheral nerves transmit these signals to spinal cord + brain for processing + interpretation. 2. MOTOR * PV carry motor commands from brain + spinal cord to muscles + glands throughout body. * Motor nerve fibers stimulate muscle contraction, allowing for voluntary movements ie walking * Some peripheral nerves part of the autonomic nervous system, regulating involuntary bodily functions ie heart rate, digestion + respiratory rate 3. INTEGRATION OF NS FUNCTIONS * REFLEX ARCS : PN involved, quick, automatic responses to stimuli. * REFLEX : sensory information is rapidly transmitted to spinal cord + motor response is immediately initiated without need for conscious thought. PARASYMPATHETIC OUTFLOW PN CATEGORIES : * Cranial nerves - 12 pairs * Cervical nerves - 8 pairs * Thoracic nerves - 12 pairs * Lumbar nerves - 5 pairs * Sacral nerves – 5 pairs * Coccygeal nerve - 1 pair BRAIN command center of NS : processes information, makes decisions, coordinates various bodily functions. SPINALCORD communication highway between brain + rest of body. crucial role in reflex actions. LOBES OF CEREBRUM (cerebral cortex) form outermost layer of brain + play crucial role in various complex functions such as sensory perception, motor control, language processing, and higher cognitive processes. The cerebrum is divided into four main lobes, each with distinct responsibilities and functions. FRONTAL LOBE Contains primary motor cortex + responsible for executive functions, decision-making, personality, + voluntary motor movements. * pivotal role in governing complex cognitive functions + personality traits. * Situated at front of cerebral cortex (area is integral to decision-making, emotional regulation, social behavior, overall executive functions) 1. Coordinates and executes voluntary movements 2. Holds and processes information short term for cognitive tasks. 3. Plays a role in some emotional expression and regulation. 4. Involved in organizing thoughts, actions, and behavior. 5. Exerts control over other brain functions and processes. Phineas Gage (19th-century railroad worker) * Self inflicted lobotomy, changed personality drastically * provides a real-world example of the intricate workings of the frontal lobe PARIETAL LOBE Contains primary somatosensory cortex + responsible for sensory integration, spatial awareness + motor function coordination. 1. Processes sensory information related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain. 2. Integrates information from various senses to create a cohesive perception of the environment. TEMPORAL LOBE Responsible for auditory processing + memory, including language comprehension + recognition of faces. 1. Processes auditory information + essential for hearing. 2. complex visual processing, including facial recognition. OCCIPITAL LOBE Responsible for visual processing, including perception + interpretation of visual stimuli. 1. Primary center for visual processing, interpreting visual stimuli from eyes. JOURNEY OF STIMULUS + ACTION THRU BODY Skin → Dorsal rootS → Brain → Ventral roots → Muscles COMMUNICATION OF BRAIN TO BODY NS * Communication via fast electrical signal * Very targeted areas of effect * Control both conscious + unconscious functions HORMONES * Predominantly released from Hypothalamus + Pituitary * Many different hormones that can be released directly into bloodstream * Communication speed depends on how fast your blood is circulating through your body * Always slower than ns. * Greater areas of effect as hormones will travel wherever the bloodstream takes them HYPOTHALAMUS * small region at base of brain that plays a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, and the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. PITUITARY GLAND two main parts: 1. anterior (front) : contains neurosecretory cells that release hormones * Anterior pituitary synthesizes and releases several hormones in response to releasing hormones from the hypothalamus. These hormones then travel through the bloodstream to target endocrine glands, stimulating or inhibiting the release of other hormones. 2. posterior (back) : has neurons directly releasing chemicals into bloodstream * Posterior pituitary does not synthesize hormones. Instead, it stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus. The two main hormones released are oxytocin and vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone). These hormones are transported along neurons from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary, where they are released into the bloodstream when needed. * Neurons come from the hypothalamus down to the anterior and posterior pituitary to regulate their activity. CAPILLARIES have tight junctions, preventing the passage of large or charged molecules. This is known as the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and it plays a significant role in protecting the brain. Only substances like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and fat loving compounds (lipophilic compounds) can naturally cross the BBB. Larger nutrients like amino acids and glucose require active transport facilitated by specific proteins called transporters in the capillary membrane, using energy for this process. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) produced by the choroid plexus located in the lateral and third ventricles. This CSF is crucial for the nourishment and protection of the brain, as well as cushioning the neural tissue. The circulation of CSF occurs through the ventricles and the subarachnoid space, creating a supportive system specific to the central nervous system. There are four ventricles, namely the two lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, the fourth ventricle, and the cerebral aqueduct. After circulating through the brain, CSF is reabsorbed by the arachnoid villi within the subarachnoid space, ultimately returning to the venous blood and then to the heart. MENINGES strong layers of tissue that help protect the brain and spinal cord. Consisting of the dura mater, a tough outer layer. The arachnoid mater which has a web-like construction. The sub-arachnoid space between meninges where the CSF flows and the pia mater which helps to cushion and protect the spinal cord. You may have heard of meningitis which is caused by inflammation of these crucial layers affecting their function. The Sensory Homunculus and Motor Homunculus are representations of the human body within the brain, specifically in the primary somatosensory cortex and primary motor cortex, respectively. These representations illustrate how different body parts are mapped onto these areas of the brain, reflecting the amount of neural space dedicated to processing sensory information or controlling motor functions for each body part. Both homunculi are tools used by neuroscientists to understand how the brain processes sensory information and controls voluntary movements. They highlight the concept of somatotopy, where neighboring areas on the body are represented by neighboring areas in the brain. The distorted proportions in the homunculi help illustrate the varying degrees of sensitivity and motor control associated with different body parts. SENSORY HOMUNCULUS The Sensory Homunculus is a distorted, humanoid figure that represents the organization of the somatosensory cortex. It illustrates the relative proportions of sensory input that different body parts provide to the brain. The size of each body part on the homunculus corresponds to the amount of cortical space dedicated to processing sensory information from that body part. For example, the hands, lips, and face are disproportionately large on the sensory homunculus because these areas have a high density of sensory receptors and require more neural processing. MOTOR HOMUNCULUS The Motor Homunculus, also known as the Cortical Homunculus, represents the organization of the primary motor cortex. Similar to the Sensory Homunculus, the Motor Homunculus illustrates the relative amount of cortical space dedicated to controlling the movements of different body parts. Body parts requiring fine motor control, such as the hands and face, are depicted with larger representations, emphasizing the precision and complexity of movements associated with these areas. GREY MATTER (pink in live brain) Grey matter refers to the darker tissue of the brain and spinal cord, composed mainly of cell bodies and dendrites at the ends of neurons. It gets its name from the appearance of the tissue, which is greyish in color when preserved. WHITE MATTER White matter contains mainly neuronal axons covered in myelin, giving it a lighter appearance. White matter facilitates communication between different brain areas by enhancing the transmission of signals along the myelinated axons. CNS VS PNS SUBCORTICAL AREAS OF FOREBRAIN THALAMUS * processes + relays sensory information to cerebral cortex * regulating consciousness, sleep, and alertness. LATERAL VENTRICLES * fluid-filled cavities within brain. * CSF produced in ventricles + circulates through brain + spinal cord, providing mechanical support + delivering nutrients. CINGULATE GYRUS * part of limbic system * involved in emotions, cognitive functions, + autonomic regulation * attention, memory, and emotional processing. CORPUS CALLOSUM * tract of neurons connecting 2 hemispheres of brain. * facilitates communication + coordination between left + right cerebral hemispheres, allowing work together. NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS * part of brain's reward system * associated with pleasure + reinforcement * motivation, reward perception, and addiction. HYPOTHALAMUS * small region at base of brain * regulating various physiological processes, including body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep, + release of hormones from pituitary gland. BASAL GANGLIA 1. Functions * Decision making , Motor control, Works in conjunction with the cortex 2. Parts * Caudate nucleus, Putamen, Globus pallidus 3. Related Disorders * Schizophrenia, Parkinson's disease LIMBIC SYSTEM 1. Functions * Emotion processing, Motivation 2. Parts * Cingulate gyrus, Links the cortex to the limbic system, Involved in judgement 3. Thalamus * Sensory and motor relay & interaction (cortex) 4. Hypothalamus * Promotes body homeostasis (stable equilibrium), Drives hormone release 5. Mamillary body 6. Hippocampus * Memory: spatial and reward related, 7. Amygdala * Emotion: fear, arousal, excitement people with PTSD it has been found that Hippocampus + Amygdala are not communicating as they should leading to PTSD symptoms 8. Olfactory bulbs * Receives direct olfactory information from receptors in nose – can lead to rapid emotional and motivating responses MID BRAIN + HIND BRAIN MIDBRAIN portion of the brainstem situated between the thalamus and the hindbrain * contains many cells that make monoamines – brain chemicals essential for motivated behaviour, movement including: dopamine, serotonin and noradrenaline 1. Superior colliculi which are essential for coordinating visual-motor responses and are interconnected with other brain regions involved in sensory processing and motor control. 2. Inferior colliculi which play a crucial role in the localization of sound sources and the generation of appropriate auditory reflexes. HINDBRAIN The Hindbrain is the posterior part of the brain. Contains important cells for homeostasis of blood pressure, heart rate and breathing Relays motor information from the cortex to the thalamus down to the spinal cord Consists of two main parts: The pons is situated above the medulla and serves as a bridge between different parts of the brain. It is involved in various functions, including the regulation of breathing, and it contains nuclei that contribute to facial movements and sensation. The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brainstem and connects to the spinal cord. It is responsible for regulating vital involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and reflexes like swallowing and vomiting. MEASURING THE BRAIN EEG * High temporal resolution - can measure what the brain's doing at a very specific moment in time * Poor spatial resolution – cannot pinpoint where the brain activity is occuring CT * maps X-rays together to create a 3D image * More detailed than a single X-ray MRI * Brain is exposed to a magnetic field and the energy that is released from the water in the brain is measured. * Good for investigating structures like soft tissue to identify tumours FUNCTIONAL IMAGING PET * Can measure which brain area is active at a particular time * Users radioactive tracers such as radioactive glucose * Other tracers can measure neurotransmitters fMRI * Measure blood oxygenation as an index of activity in a particular brain region MEG * Measures small magnetic fields that provide evidence of electrical activity in the brain * Very good spatial resolution NEURONS NEURONS * facilitate all the information and message flow in and out of the brain. * Primary component in nervous system * Glial cells : provide support and protection for neurons, and are also becoming increasingly recognised as communicators between cells. TYPES : 1. Astrocytes provide structural support, regulate the extracellular environment, participate in the blood-brain barrier, and assist in the repair of damaged neural tissue. They have also been shown to release chemicals to communicate with each other and neurons. 2. 3. Ependymal cells line the ventricles of the brain and are primarily associated with the formation and maintenance of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. 4. 5. Microglia are responsible for detecting and removing damaged cells, debris, and pathogens through a process known as phagocytosis. 6. 7. Oligodendrocytes produce and maintain the myelin sheath, a fatty insulating substance that wraps around axons and facilitates faster transmission of neuronal impulses. More on that soon. STRUCTURE OF NEURON 1. Soma (cell body) central region of the neuron. manufactures new cell components (small + large molecules) Because the cell body contains the nucleus, where proteins are manufactured, serious damage to this part of the neuron is fatal. The cell body also provides continual renewal of cell components. 2. Dendrites Neurons contain multiple branch-like extensions for receiving information from other neurons. Like the receivers on mobile phones, these numerous dendrites spread out to ‘listen in’ on conversations from neighbouring neurons and pass them on to the cell body. 3. Axon long, slender extension of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body towards other neurons, muscles, or glands. often covered by a myelin sheath, which helps speed up the transmission of neuronal impulses. 4. Presynaptic Terminals endpoints of an axon where neurotransmitters are stored. When an electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse, facilitating the transmission of signals to the postsynaptic neuron or target cell. CLASSIFICATIONS OF NEURONS 1. # Neurites (axons/dendrites) * Unipolar - 1, Bipolar - 2, Multipolar - more than 2 2. Their dendrites * Number, Shape, If they have spines or not 3. Axon Length * Golgi type I Long “internuncial” neuron with the cell body in one brain region and an axon that travels to another brain region * Golgi type II Small “interneurons” wholly within a brain region 4. Neurotransmitter * chemical released by neuron 5. Neuronal connections * Primary sensory neurons, Motor neurons CLASSIFICATION BY DENDRITES 1. Shape * Stellate (starshaped), Pyramidal (triangular) 2. Spines * Dendritic spines are involved in learning and memory and provide more surface area for communication * Spinous (has spines), Aspinous (no spines) AFFERENT NEURONS go TO the synapse EFFERENT NEURONS project FROM the synapse PHOSPHOLIPID BILAYER membrane around the neuron and it regulates the movement of ions and molecules between the inside and the outside of the cell. two layers of molecules that create a barrier through which certain molecules can’t pass. It will let uncharged molecules through, but not ions or charged molecules. Ions require channels in the form of large protein molecules in the membrane to travel from one side to the other RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL electrochemical gradient. This means intracellular ion concentration is different from extracellular ion concentration which results in a difference in charge between the inside and the outside of the neuron. Charged particles will always try to achieve an equilibrium. Since the internal and external charges are different the situation has the potential to change. * Outside - plenty of Na+ * Inside - plenty of K+ AND large anion molecules (-) At rest * Charge cannot balance out * Membrane prevents Na+ entering or anions leaving * Sodium potassium ion “pumps” keep things IMPORTANT IONS Cations * Sodium - Na+ * Potassium - K+ * Calcium - Ca2+ Anion * Chlorine - Cl- NEURON AT REST Extracellular fluid - positively charged * High concentration of Na+ * Low concentration of K+ Intracellular fluid - negatively charged * High concentration of K+ * Low concentration of Na+ * High concentration of negatively charged Proteins (P-) * High concentration of Cl- ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT Electrical gradient The difference in electrical charge between two adjacent areas. If an area is negative, positive ions will flow to it. Positive K+ ions will flow from the outside of the cell to the inside. Concentration gradient The difference in concentration of a particular ion between two adjacent areas. If an area has many K+ ions, the K+ ions will flow to an area with less K+ ions. The inside of the cell has more K+ ions than the outside. K+ ions will then cross from the inside to the outside of the cell. ACTION POTENTIAL 1. Stimulus 2. Depolarisation - sodium ions start to enter neuron 3. Repolarisation and the Absolute Refractory Period - potassium gates open, potassium ions rush out of cell to make more negative 4. Hyperpolarization and the Relative Refractory period 5. At rest NEUROTRANSMITTER DYSFUNCTION