AQA Psychology A-level Notes

Topic 2: Memory

Part 1: Coding, Capacity, and Duration of Memory

• Coding: Information format stored in memory.

  • STM: Acoustic coding
  • LTM: Semantic coding
  • Study: Baddeley (1966) showed mistakes in recall of similar words.

• Capacity: Volume of information stored.

  • STM: ~7 items (Miller), Jacobs found letter span 7.3, digit span 9.3
  • LTM: Unlimited
  • Critique: Historical research lacks standardization; Miller's STM capacity may be overestimated.

• Duration: Time information can be stored.

  • STM: 18-30 seconds (Petersen et al)
  • LTM: Unlimited (Bahrick et al)
  • Critique: Ecological validity issues in some studies.

Part 2: Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)

• Structure: Sensory register, STM, LTM.
• Encoding:
  • STM: Acoustic
  • LTM: Semantic
• Processes:
  • Maintenance rehearsal for STM retention
  • Elaboration for LTM transfer (Craik and Watkins)
• Types of LTM: Procedural, Semantic, Episodic
  • MSM doesn't differentiate types of LTM
• Critiques: Shallice and Warrington's study of KF suggests multiple STM types.

Part 3: Types of Long-Term Memory

• Types:
  • Episodic: Personal memories
  • Semantic: World knowledge
  • Procedural: Skills
• Recall:
  • Episodic/Semantic: Conscious recall
  • Procedural: Unconscious recall
  • Study: Petersen et al. on neurological basis
• Applications: Targeted treatments for cognitive impairments (Belleville et al).
• Critiques: Cohen and Squire's classification system differs from Tulving's.

Part 4: Working Memory Model (WMM)

• Components:
  • Central Executive: Task allocation, limited capacity
  • Phonological Loop: Auditory processing
  • Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Visual/spatial processing
  • Episodic Buffer: Integrates data, links STM to LTM
• Critiques: Lack of precise definition for Central Executive.
• Support: Dual-task studies, Braver et al's neuroimaging findings.

Part 5: Explanations for Forgetting - Interference

• Types:
  • Retroactive: New memories hinder old
  • Proactive: Old memories hinder new
• Research: McGeoch and McDonald, Baddeley and Hitch
• Critiques: Artificial stimuli, low mundane realism.

Part 6: Explanations for Forgetting - Retrieval Failure

• Theory: Cues at encoding must match recall (Tulving's ESP).
  • Context-dependent: External cues
  • State-dependent: Internal cues
• Studies: Godden and Baddeley (context), Carter and Cassaday (state)
• Critiques: Ecological validity, cyclical reasoning in ESP.

Part 7: Eyewitness Testimony - Misleading Information

• Factors:
  • Leading Questions (Loftus and Palmer)
  • Post-event Discussions (Gabbert et al)
• Mechanisms: Memory conformity, response bias
• Critiques: Own age bias, demand characteristics.

Part 8: Eyewitness Testimony - Anxiety

• Effects:
  • Negative: Weapon focus effect (Johnson and Scott)
  • Positive: Fight or flight response (Yuille and Cutshall)
• Theory: Yerkes-Dodson Law (Inverted-U relationship)
• Critiques: Ethical issues, extraneous variables in field studies

Part 9: Improving Eyewitness Testimony - Cognitive Interviews

• Stages:
  • Report everything
  • Reinstate context
  • Change perspective
  • Reverse order
• Enhanced CI: Focus on social dynamics (Fisher et al)
• Critiques: Practical value, increased incorrect recall (Kohnken et al)
• Conclusion: Partial use can improve accuracy (Milne and Bull).