for the chapter material. And this part that you see is part two. I put them all in one PowerPoint, so I wouldn't have to switch PowerPoints.
So this is what you have available to you in files. And this is the first picture that just tells you that it's, you know, part one, chapter one. And why do we have to learn terminology? So the reality of the situation is this. I intend to write my own exams using correct anatomical and physiological terms.
So you need... going to need to understand what those mean in order to answer some of the questions. You are going to have to communicate and sound intelligent when you communicate with your colleagues that are in the healthcare professions.
And when you are talking to your superiors, they're going to expect you to use correct anatomical, scientific, physiological language. They just expect it. All right. So anatomy and physiology is the name of the course.
It can be broken up into two courses. Like you could do anatomy. and then you could do physiology.
But since the two of them are inseparable, at Hillsborough Community College, we teach anatomy and physiology one and anatomy and physiology two. So we teach them together, where you learn the anatomy, which is the structure of something, the way that it is formed, and then you learn the physiology. And then you'll realize that the physiology, which is the function of those things, is directly associated with the form.
It's very simple to think about. Wheels are round because they go around. It would be very, very difficult to drive around on a square wheel, anatomy and physiology.
Another one that is more applicable to allied health would be like sickle cell anemia. Sickle cell anemia is when the red blood cells, which are supposed to be biconcave discs, which means they're circular or spherical, they are sickled in shape. So they're malformed.
And since they're malformed, they malfunction. The reason why they malfunction is... because that sickle shape decreases the amount of hemoglobin that can be carried to the tissues, and all of our tissues need oxygen.
And it also causes them to aggregate or stick together, and that can clog vessels and interfere with the delivery of organs or oxygen to the organs. And people with sickle cell anemia can suffer from organ failure and pass away, all because their red blood cells are not shaped the way they're supposed to be. So anatomy and physiology go hand in hand. and they are inseparable. So when we look at anatomy, if we're looking at something grossly, it's not like, oh my gosh, this is so gross and so disgusting.
It just means that I don't need a microscope to look at it. So gross anatomy can sometimes be referred to as macroscopic anatomy because I don't need a microscope. I can see it with my naked eye. So these are very large structures.
Let's see, regions of anatomy, look at all structures in particular areas of the body. We have systems anatomy, and that's how this class is divided. I'm going to give you an overview of anatomy and physiology, chapter one. Chapter two, we're going to do chemistry. Chapter three, we're going to talk about cells because all living things are based on cells.
Chapter four is actually histology, and it's covered in the lab completely, so mandatory co-requisites. It's not covered in the lecture material. But then we go on to the integumentary system.
Then we go on to the skeletal system. Then we go on to the muscular system. So system, system, systems. When you get to 2086, and the nervous system also in 2085. When you get to 2086, you're going to go through some more systems. So you're going to do the endocrine system and the respiratory system and the cardiovascular system.
System, system, system, system, system. Now, surface anatomy looks at the internal structures as they relate to overlying skin. So visible muscle masses or veins that you can see at the surface, like varicose veins, for example, that of course could be seen without a naked eye. Most of you are familiar with varicose veins. And then if we're looking at anatomy microscopically, right, these are structures that are too small for us to see with the naked eye, so we need a microscope.
In lab, that's the first thing we do is an overview of the microscope. Because in lab, one of the first things we do is histology, which is the study of tissues, and tissues need to be looked at underneath. the microscope. So cytology is the study of cells. Histology is the study of tissues.
And we need a microscope to study those. Developmental anatomy is pretty awesome. If you take an embryology class, you're going to see developmental.
Oh, it's just so amazing looking at everything that happens from, you know, the uniting of an egg and a sperm to the development of a fetus and then to a newborn baby. Oh my gosh, it's just awesome. So that's embryology is all of those. you know, things that happened prior to the birth. And then terminology is important, and I've already said that, but in order to study anatomy, you need to know anatomical terminology.
You have to observe and manipulate and palpitate, right? So all of these things help you learn, which is why we make the lab a mandatory co-requisite, because the lab is a hands-on experience. When we look at physiology, which of course is the function, We can do it based on organ system. So you have the renal system, the cardiovascular system, right? We can look at the physiology of those.
Others focus on cellular or molecular levels. So when we look at cells, all living things are made up of cells. So chapter three is about cells, individual cells, different cells. Why?
Because those cells make up tissues. Those tissues make up organs. Those organs make up organ systems.
And the organ systems make up us, which is the organism. Anyway. So in order to study physiology, you have to have, and this is going to be fun, you have to have some, you know, chemistry. Yay! So chapter two is chemistry.
You also have to have some understanding of physics. So there's going to be some, you know, physics principles that we apply. For example, the laws of thermodynamics, which state that we cannot create nor destroy energy.
And we also cannot create or destroy matter. It's just converted from one form to another. So it's going to be great because...
Because, you know, you wanted to take chemistry and physics along with your anatomy and physiology class. All right. So as I mentioned, they are inseparable. They go hand in hand.
The function always reflects the structure. Cannot function properly if it's not structured properly. So that's a big deal. So it's a principle of complementarity, right?
The physical or the physical, the physiology complements the anatomy. the anatomy complements the physiology. So the structure complements the function, the function complements the structure.
All right. So this is what I was just saying a few minutes ago. This is this hierarchy of organization.
So we do have a chemical level. This is why we have to study chemistry because you're going to learn about atoms and molecules. And then the organelles would be organs of cells, right? So organelles are the organs of cells.
All that means is that if the organelles of the cell begin to fail, the cell itself will also die. The cell is the smallest living unit, right? So the smallest living thing is a cell.
And then the cells become the tissues, the tissues become the organs, the organs become the organ system, organ systems, because we have about 12 of them. And then we take those 12 organ systems and we make the organism. So that's us.
Now, all this is, is a picture showing you that the atoms and the molecules, I'm trying to get my arrow. There we go. the atoms and the molecules, then the organelles, the organelles to the cells, the cells to the tissue, the tissues to the organs, the organs to the organ systems, the organ systems, in this case, the cardiovascular one is the one they're highlighting, and then the organism, right?
So a homo sapien, and this happens to be a male homo sapien playing tennis. Now, requirements for life, right? Because this is human anatomy and physiology, and it does fall under biology, which is why it's a BSc class. So it's a study of life.
but more specifically, all of the systems that are associated with human anatomy and physiology. There are classes that are called comparative anatomy and physiology, where you compare human anatomy and physiology to the anatomy and physiology of a shark, compared to anatomy and physiology of a whale, compared to anatomy and physiology of another mammal, etc., etc. That's comparative.
But these things are necessary for life. You have to maintain boundaries. You have to be able to move responsibly.
digest, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, and growth. Now, let me tell you when you have studied enough that you are prepared for the test. When you can look at this slide, and this is absent of the recorded lecture, but when you can look at this slide and you can say, okay, maintaining boundaries. The skin is an example of maintaining boundaries. The skin maintains a boundary of the external, right?
The environment, outside environment. and protects us from what's, you know, what's on the inside. So that's the skin.
The cell's membrane is a boundary, right, that's set to protect the cell from the external environment, so the things outside of the cell, and to protect the cells inside. So those are two examples of the boundaries that we find at a cellular level, and then for us that we find at the organismal level. Then movement.
We have the ability to move. Our skeletal muscle is under voluntary control, and it moves. We also have smooth muscle, like of the digestive system, and it moves. It moves food down the alimentary canal from our mouth to our anus, right? And a lot of things in between.
But movement, that's important. Responsiveness is your ability to respond to a stimulus. There are some people who cannot sense pain. I don't know if you guys know this, but that is a potentially deadly disorder.
Because pain is what tells us that something is wrong. And when something's wrong, we go and seek help for it, right? Person falls, hits their head, suffers a subdermal hematoma.
They don't feel like it hurt at all. Never seek any help and then die in their sleep, okay? So your ability to respond to a stimulus, and pain happens to be a stimulus. Digestion.
In order for us to gain the value of the food that we eat, we have to digest it, which means we have to break it down. So we break down these food particles and we get nutrients that go into our blood that feed our cells, that feed our tissues, that feed our organs, right? Digestion. And then metabolism is the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in your body.
But technically, there's only two types. Either I'm taking something that's big, like, let's say, carbohydrates. Let's say you had breakfast this morning and you ate, you know, I don't know, an egg and cheese sandwich with bacon. And that's because what my son usually eats.
So an egg and cheese sandwich with bacon. So toasted egg and cheese, like it's a grilled cheese sandwich. And so the bread is a carbohydrate. You break down those complex carbohydrates into simpler sugars, like glucose, for example, glucose gets into the cell, the cell uses it as energy. And then of course, the cells provide the energy that's necessary for the tissues, the tissues, right, etc, etc.
So that's why you eat so that you can gain nutrients. So if I'm taking something that's big, like complex carbohydrates, and I'm breaking it down into simple sugars, that's a catabolic reaction. If I'm taking like amino acid supplements, I take amino acids and amino acids link together.
They form these, I don't know if you guys know this or not, but anyway, so we have these bonds that are called peptide bonds in between amino acids. So they form peptide bonds and then you build a protein. So if you're building something that's anabolic, If you're breaking something down that's catabolic and your metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in the body, so it's the sum of the catabolic and the anabolic reactions because those are the only two things. You're either building something or breaking something.
And then excretion. Everyone has to go pee. Everyone has to go poo.
I know. What? Pee and poo.
So defecation and urination are ways that we excrete. waste and it's absolutely mandatory. It's required for life. You have to have it.
Persons whose kidneys shut down and kidneys are where the urine forms, people who have kidney failure will die if we don't hemodialysis them. And hemodialysis is basically doing what the kidneys would do, which would be take all of the toxins out of their blood, right? And then put the fresh blood back into the system.
Well, the way that the kidneys work is that we are allowed to excrete nitrogenous waste. These are breakdowns from protein metabolism like urea. We are allowed to, you know, excrete those, get those out of the body, and they go out in urine.
If you're unable to urinate, those toxins are going to build up in your blood. And then defecation is the, you know, solid waste. So you have to go poo and get rid of those toxins. And then we have reproduction.
So please don't. like talk to your parents later on today and say, Professor Evans said that I have to have some babies. But it's true.
If everyone right now in the world decided that they were not going to have any more children, then life on earth, as far as Homo sapiens, would cease to exist. So the continuity of life, that means the continuation of life, depends on reproduction. So we have reproduction at the organismal level, that's us having babies, and we have reproduction of ourselves. The reason why you are not the same size. as you were when you were born, is because your entire body grew, right?
Your organs grew, your bones grew, your muscles grew, and they grow through cellular reproduction. So reproduction is necessary. And then growth, how did they grow again?
Through those things that I just mentioned. So when we go through growth, we have mitosis, which is our cell division of all of the cells in our body. And then we have meiosis, which is the cell division for our gametes. The gametes are egg and sperm.
That's a long story, but you'll learn more about reproduction in 2086 if you have to take it. All right. So everything that I just said here, I promise you, is coming up in the PowerPoints.
But what I stated was, is that you know that you have studied enough and understood the material enough when you can get to this page and you can tell me all of those things on your own. That means you get it, you understand it. But now I'm going to go through it with, you know, visuals, right? So maintaining boundaries, separating the internal and the external. What?
No way. The plasma membrane, which is the cell's membrane, separates the cells inside from the outside, extracellular, intracellular. The skin at the organismal level, us specifically, right? Homo sapiens. So it separates us from our external environment.
And then movement, muscle. What? No way.
Muscle causes movement. Yep. So we have skeletal muscle and we have cardiac muscle and we have smooth muscle. So we have various types of muscle and they move various substances, but it's necessary for us to have movement. Contractility is what we look at at the cellular level.
Sorry, because the microphone is like itching my ear. But contractility is what we have at the cellular level. And when we get to the muscles.
lecture, well, boy, we're going to learn muscle contraction step by step by step. It's going to be great. All right. Responsiveness.
I said this again, our ability to respond to a stimulus. The withdrawal with reflex is a protective one. So if you see something that you think is coming at you that may be harmful, like if someone raises their hand and you, you know, duck to avoid being slapped like my son used to do, evidence of the fact that he was a bad child.
but basically you withdraw from something that you would perceive to be painful, and that's protective in nature. We also have controlling our breathing rate. It changes in response to different activities, like if I had to go and run around the block for some reason, I'd come back, I'd be breathing heavily, my heart would increase its contractility, so my heart rate would increase, my respiration would increase.
And the blood flow to the surface of my skin would increase and I would sweat. So that's the responsiveness to stimulus. In this case, the stimulus was the activity.
All right, then we have digestion. So ingested food stuff. I tell everyone as a joke, I said, checkers got it right. Checkers says you got to eat. And it's true.
You don't have to eat checkers, though. Checkers is nasty. I don't know why people eat that.
But anyway, so you have to eat, right? And ingested food stuff, we have to absorb the nutrients into the blood for us to have any value of having eaten, right? So that's why we eat.
And then metabolism, like I said, is the sum of all the reactions in the body, but there's only two. You either have catabolic reactions, which are the breakdown ones. So we take large things and break them down into smaller ones, catabolic.
Or we have anabolic reactions, and this is when you take small things and build them into something bigger. Amino acids build proteins, for example. Um, the nucleotides, adenine, thiamine, cytosine, guanine, these, those build DNA. Um, let's see, simple sugars build the carbohydrates.
So we can break down those things into smaller ones, or we can build from smaller ones to larger ones. So catabolic is breakdown. Anabolic is building up.
Um, and then excretion, like I said, um, we have to get rid of the waste. If it accumulates in our body, we will die. It becomes toxic to us. So urea, the breakdown of proteins.
carbon dioxide, it's our waste gas, so we exhale that through our respiratory system. And then the unabsorbed food is the solid waste that we get rid of in feces. So defecation, and then the fecal matter, or the feces.
And then reproduction at the cellular level. What? The cells grow and repair themselves at a cellular level? But then reproduction producing babies, offspring, is what happens at the organismal level.
continuity of life would cease to exist, right, if we didn't have reproduction. And then growth, an increase in the size of the body parts. Now, I will give you a little story because it would be very boring if I just read the PowerPoints.
So I want to go over the PowerPoints because that information is important, but I do give you additional information. So I will give you what I think is some very interesting stories that apply to this. part that these things are necessary for life. So I don't know if you guys know, because I don't know all your ages, but there was an actor and his name was Gary Coleman and Gary Coleman played on different strokes.
And so he was Arnold on different strokes and he was a little, you know, a little person. So, but he wasn't a dwarf. He didn't suffer dwarfism.
He had a congenital liver disease and that congenital liver disease. stunted his growth. So what happens, and this is to me is remarkable when you think about the body.
So he was going to outgrow his liver because he had a disease that wasn't allowing his liver to grow and function properly. So the body said, well, wait a minute. So if we keep growing, then we're all going to die because the liver is not going to be able to maintain the functions of a big body.
So how about, and I swear all the systems got together. And they thought about it and they go, I've got an idea. How about if we just stay little?
Like, no lie. I personify stuff. I know it's silly. But that's exactly what happened. I have a real life story for this one, which I think is pretty awesome.
We were dog sitting, a friend of mine who played for the Bucs. We were dog sitting his little bitty little pit bull. We have pit bulls and we love pit bulls.
And they're just a beautiful species of dog, despite what a lot of people say. But. But anyway, so he brought Trinity.
That was her name. He brought Trinity. He's like, oh, Mariah, I've got all these, you know, two days right now, and I'm not going to be able to, you know, to take care of her.
And she's going to need some training. Do you mind, blah, blah, blah, et cetera. I go, oh, my gosh, no, not at all, because this is adopting a puppy for a little bit and then, you know, giving the puppy back. Anyway, so I was taking care of Trinity, but she hadn't gotten her first puppy shots. And I was like, oh, my gosh, you're killing me right now.
So I take her to our vet, who's a good friend of mine. I take her to our vet and I said, you know, she's got to get her shots because we have our own dogs and we can't, you know, risk infections. And I have kids, blah, blah, blah. Anyway, so she gets her first shots and she gets her workup. And the doctor comes out to me and says, Mariah, and I'm not going to mention her name or the facility that she works at.
But she comes out to me and she says, Mariah, I hate to tell you this, but Trinity has a congenital heart defect. And if she doesn't get surgery. she will die.
And I was like, you don't have to hate to break that to me. I'm just puppy sitting. Trinity is not my puppy.
I'm like, I will relay the message. Anyway, so I relayed the message to my friend who is no longer a friend of ours. But I relayed the message and he was like, well, you may as well keep her because if you give her back to me, I swear to God, I'm going to drop that dog off on the side of the road somewhere.
So I was like, wait, what? Anyway, so I was pissed. to say the very least.
And I did not give him back Trinity for that very reason. But I also wasn't about to pay for a $10,000 surgery for Trinity because she is not our dog. So I explained this to my children.
I said, you know what? Trinity's really sick and she's going to die in a couple of months. We're going to give this dog the best couple of months of her life. So we had Trinity for four months.
She's still living. We had Trinity for five months, six months, seven months, eight months, a year. She's still living.
I called my friend. I thought you said she needed this $10,000 surgery or she would outgrow her heart and die in a couple of months. You lied because that's my friend.
I can say it like that. Anyway, year one goes by. Year two goes by. My mom says, OK, Mariah, I know you didn't sign on to keep Trinity, so you can bring Trinity up here to me and I'll keep her. So we drove up to Michigan and dropped Trinity off at my mom's, spent a couple of weeks there in the summer.
Trinity lived to be seven. seven. Now, let me tell you something about Trinity. Trinity, everyone, everyone mistook Trinity for something that she wasn't.
Trinity was so little. She was the littlest pit bull that you have ever seen. So she was so tiny, but she was still rambunctious. And she was so tiny because her body didn't grow.
They were like, hey, did you hear what the doctor said? They said we would outgrow our heart. So let's not grow. So she stayed little. She was the smallest pit bull I've ever seen in my entire life.
It's a true story. And I love that story because it parallels Gary Coleman. And you can look up about Gary Coleman and why his growth was stunted.
It's a true story, I promise. Of course, you have to take my word on Trinity because you don't know her and she's no longer with us. So you can't verify the story. But it's true. But she was the littlest pit bull ever.
So just rambunctious and cute as pie. And she lived to be seven years old. So. half the time that they would normally live.
Pitbull's, I guess, you know, between 12 and 14 years of age is, you know, is about their lifespan. So half her life, but she was loved. Little as Pitbull ever. All right. So let's go on.
We are multicellular. So we have many cells and many cells that make up many different organs that are there. And so what happens is, is that, sorry, I'm getting this.
All right, so there's only so many things I can see on my screen. Let me go over here. Sorry, I see some chats and I can't, I can't see them when I'm sharing my screen.
Is my sound still working? Someone's going to have to unmute and let me know. Yes, it's working.
Okay, sorry. So I can't, I see I get a notification for chats, but I can't pull them up when I'm doing it. And I'm like, oh my gosh, you can't hear me. Anyway.
We were all fascinated by the puppy story. Oh, yes. It's my baby, Trinity. A little so cute.
All right. So we're multicellular, and I do digress, but it'll be great when you go back and listen to this, right, instead of just the whole boring lecture. Anyway, so we're multicellular, but individual cells have to be kept alive in order for them to do their job, right? Cells, tissues, organs, right, et cetera. So organ systems are designed to service the cells because we are cellularly based.
All cells depend on the organ systems to meet their needs. And if they don't meet their needs, then we start dying cellularly, which means the tissue dies, which means the organs dies, which means we die. So I said earlier that we have about a dozen organ systems.
They say 11 here, but that's because when we do this overview, you're going to see that they take the lymphatic system and the immune system and they put it together. And I'm fine with that. But when I lecture in those in 2086, they are separate. lectures, right? The immune system, well, actually, no, they are combined now, but the immune system and the lymphatic system are combined, and that's why they're 11 instead of 12 now.
All this picture represents here is that several organ systems work together for this lovely organism, which is us, to function. So we take in food here, and we have to because of the nutrients, and then those nutrients are going to allow the blood to deliver oxygen to every tissue in the body. The lungs do their job, right, which is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
So we breathe in oxygen, and that oxygen that we breathe in goes into the blood. So now we have nutrients and oxygen being delivered to all of the tissues. Carbon dioxide is the waste and we're exhaling that.
Then we have these lovely kidneys that filter out this blood for us so that we can take the waste and excrete it from the body. And that's just a few systems right there. There are so many more. So cardiovascular system is listed here. The respiratory system is listed here.
The urinary system is listed here. The digestive systems were listed here. But we have 12 systems if you separate the immune system from the lymphatic system. So there you go. Now.
the next couple of slides are the overviews of the system. And even though we stop in 2085, we stop at the nervous system and then 2086 picks up from chapter 16 and, you know, finishes this overview of anatomy and physiology talks about all of the systems. So this is the integumentary system.
This is the hair, the nails, and the skin. Then it tells you that, you know, the skin is this outer covering. The skin is our largest, most vulnerable organ, our largest and most vulnerable organ. And the reason why it's so vulnerable is that it's exposed, right? It's on the external side.
So it's an external body covering. It protects us from injury. We need our skin to synthesize vitamin D, right?
So UV has to penetrate our skin so that we can make vitamin D. And then we have pain receptors and cutaneous receptors. So people or things can touch your skin.
And sorry, I don't know if that got in the way. But they can touch your skin. And if they touch your skin, then... you know, you can sense it, you can feel that.
All right. We also have our sweat glands that are there. So we sweat and we sweat to cool down their body.
We do it on purpose. And we also have oil because our skin needs to be lubricated, but so does our hair else it'll be dry and brittle and break. So oil glands, sweat glands, cutaneous glands, et cetera.
So for the test, the way that it works with these overview of systems is that you should be able to recognize the organs that belong to specific organ systems. and then a general function of that system, okay? So this is the skeletal system. These are the bones, but it's not just the bones, it's the joints.
So the ligaments and the tendons are also kind of part of the system here. So the skeletal system protects and supports our body's organs. It's a framework for the skeleton or skeletal muscle because muscle is attached to the bones. And then in our bone marrow, so like we have this medullary cavity, which is...
the middle part of the cell of the bones. This is where we have bone marrow and bone marrow is where we make our blood cells. So it's called hematopoiesis.
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and your platelets are all made in your bone marrow. So it says bone cells, right, are there. And then blood, excuse me, blood cells are there. We do have bone cells, several different ones. We'll talk about those.
But your blood cells are formed within the bone because it's in the bone marrow, which is part of the bone. And then we also store minerals like calcium and phosphorus in our bones. Okay.
Then we have skeletal muscle. Now they are emphasizing skeletal muscle, but remember there's also smooth muscle and cardiac muscle, which we briefly talked about when we talked about movement. But skeletal muscle is voluntary movement.
You have control of your skeletal muscle. If I said everyone right now, raise your right hand, you could do it. If you decided not to do it, you still voluntarily decided not to do it. So it's under voluntary control. So it allows manipulation of your environment, locomotion, new facial expression.
See that? Can you smell what the rock is cooking? That's my Dwayne Johnson.
See, let's see the eyebrow. Anyway, so facial expressions, those are skeletal muscle. It helps maintain our posture and skeletal muscle produces heat.
So if you are... outside and it's really cold and you run around, you're going to warm up. That's what my mom used to tell me. We were born and raised in Detroit, Michigan. So then we go to the nervous system.
Nervous system is the brain and the spinal cord, which has nerves that come off of it. And those are called spinal nerves. The brain, they're not showing them here, but there's nerves that come off the brain and those are called cranial nerves.
If you look through the way the lecture series is going to go, when we get through the nervous system, we'll go through PNS, which is the peripheral nervous system. And they'll talk about the cranial nerves and the spinal nerves, right? So nerves come off the spinal cord or the brain. And then we have the brain. So brain and spinal cord, central nervous system.
Now the nervous system in general is very fast acting. So it's a fast acting control system. It controls everything. The brain controls everything that happens in the body.
It's amazing. So responds to internal and external changes, activates appropriate muscles and glands. So that could be skeletal muscle, your smooth muscle, or your cardiac muscle and your glands so that you can respond.
to those changes. The brain controls everything. It's amazing. Now, this is the last of what will be covered in 2085 as far as individual chapters and systems. Then we move on to the endocrine system, which is chapter 16 in the book.
And the endocrine system is the glandular system. So pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal gland, right? Those are glands. The pancreas is also a gland.
Ovaries are glands. The testes are glands, right? So a glandular system. Now, what do these glands do? They secrete chemicals called hormones that regulate the entire body.
What's funny is it says it regulates processes like growth, reproduction, nutrient use. Yeah. So basically we need hormones to regulate almost every single thing that's vital in our body, right? Because we noticed that these things were necessary for life, right? growth, the reproduction, the nutrients.
So yeah, it's important. Hormones, they're important. And then we have cardiovascular system.
Cardio is referring to the heart. Vascular is referring to the vessels. There are different types of vessels. So there are arteries and there are veins, but again, it is what it is, cardiovascular. And they carry and transport the blood.
So oxygen-rich blood and oxygen-poor blood have to be transported, right? Because carbon dioxide is our waste gas. So it carries oxygen and the carbon dioxide, but also carries the nutrients, right, to all of the organs in the body, but also takes the waste so that they can be delivered through the kidneys and excreted, right, and defecated as well.
So it's important that you understand that. So nutrients and waste, carbon dioxide and oxygen, and the heart itself pumps the blood throughout the entire body. Then we move to the lymphatic slash immune system, right? So remember I told you the two of them would be going together. And it says that what the lymphatic system does is that it picks up all of this.
I call it a wet vac. So it picks up all of this leaked fluid that came out of the blood vessels and takes it back into blood circulation. It does it through venous circulation, but we'll just go into the blood.
It helps dispose of the debris in the lymphatic stream. It has white blood cells that help with your immunity. So lymphocytes, so lymphatic system. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. And let's see, the immune system mounts an attack against the foreign substances that are in the blood.
And so this is the immune part of it and the lymphatic part of it. Now, what I will tell you to help this make a little bit of sense to you, even though you're going to learn more about it in 2086, is that if you've ever had strep throat, right, which is an upper respiratory infection, if you felt around this area here, then you had swollen lymph nodes. The lymph nodes swell. in the areas that are associated where the infection is occurring. So swollen lymph nodes in your neck tender to the touch, and that's because the organism that's causing the strep throat is streptococcus pyogenes.
It's a group A beta hemolytic strep species, probably more than you need to know for right now, but it is a streptococcus species. It's a bacterial species, and the lymphatic system services the immune system, so it sucks up. the pathogen, in this case, the strep, and it accumulates in the lymph nodes.
The whole point of the lymphatic system is to take those things that are causing problems and try to destroy it. So the lymph nodes become huge because they've sucked up, right, that excess fluid and the debris, in this case, strep, and it caused the lymph node to become swollen. And what the lymph nodes do is then they elicit an attack on that strep with the hope of destroying it.
completely before that blood goes back to the venous circulation. So see how it says it takes it back to the blood? This is also the reason why a person who's diagnosed with cancer, it's the reason why we check their lymph nodes, because the cancer cells would also be in the lymph nodes.
And if they're not destroyed in the lymph nodes, then it's going to return to the blood and blood goes to the heart and the heart pumps it to everywhere in the body. So that's why we check lymph nodes just to, you know, hopefully make some connections there. And then we have the respiratory system, nasal cavity, the pharynx, the larynx, the trachea, which is your windpipe, trachea, which is your windpipe. Trachea is your windpipe. It's designed for air and air only.
Just thought I'd put it out there. When food goes down there, you'll cough violently. When water goes down there, you'll cough violently. You know why?
Because it's a windpipe, air only. And then we have the bronchus and we have the lungs. So these are, again, organs that belong to the system, respiratory system.
And what does the respiratory system do? It provides oxygen to every part of the body. Why? Because we breathe in oxygen and we expel carbon dioxide. So supplies oxygen and removes the carbon dioxide.
And there's an exchange that takes place in the sacs of the lungs. Those are your air sacs. And your air sacs are also called alveoli.
Okay. So that's where the exchange takes place. And we'll learn more about that in 2086. Then we have the digestive system.
Remember, you got to eat. Oral cavity is your mouth. Esophagus is your food tube.
So unlike the windpipe, which is your air tube, food tube, food goes down the esophagus. The liver, the stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine, the rectum, the anus, these are organs that are a part of the digestive system. And we use the digestive system to break down the food stuff, right, so that we can take those nutrients and put it in the blood. What's not digested is going to be released from the body, right, as feces, so eliminated as feces.
Urinary system, they're just showing you three things here, well, four things. The kidney themselves, that's where the urine is produced. The ureter, which moves the urine from the kidneys to the bladder where it's temporarily stored. And then when you go to the bathroom, like tinkle, you are releasing the urine through the urethra.
So it says that the urinary system eliminates those nitrogenous wastes from the body. It helps regulate your water balance, your electrolyte balance, and your acid and base balance. And more about that again in 2086. And then we have the male reproductive system. And what I say about the male reproductive system is, you know, penis, penis, penis.
And then the female reproductive system, I say vagina, vagina, vagina. And the reality is, is that it's going to be the penis that delivers the gametes, which are sperm. And it's going to be the vagina that receives the gametes.
of the male, which are sperm, and goes to the egg so that you can have a baby, right? So reproduction is necessary for the continuity of life. You can go through and look at all of those, but basically, yeah, female and male reproduction.
All right, so now things that we need to survive. We need to eat, right? Nutrients.
We need oxygen. We are aerobic respirators, have to have oxygen. We need water. We need to regulate our body temperature because if our body temperature gets too high, we can die.
If our body temperature gets too low, we can die. And we also need appropriate atmospheric pressure. Now, nutrients, right, that gives us the breakdown of food stuff and provides nutrients to every single cell, tissue, and organ in our body. And then oxygen, like I said, we're aerobic, so we need oxygen. But the reality is, is that it says here that too much of these things that we need or too little of these things that we need are going to be a problem.
What? Too many nutrients is a problem? a problem?
Yes, obesity. Too much oxygen is a problem? Yes, free radicals that destroy cells. Too much water can be a problem?
Absolutely. You can have so much water that you dilute the electrolytes in your body and your body won't function properly. It's why when you drink a gallon of water, you pee a whole bunch and it's a very dilute pee.
I know, see? And then body temperature, like I said, if it's too high, you can die too low, right? So all of these things have to be in the... appropriate amounts. And that's all it says here is that our nutrients, we get those because we break down food stuff, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins, all of those things we take in and they nourish our body on a cellular level.
Oxygen said that already. We get the oxygen obviously from breathing it in, delivered in the blood to us. We can only survive a few minutes without oxygen. We can only survive a few minutes without oxygen. But I've already told you if there's too much oxygen, then we have the superoxide molecules, which become toxic to our tissues.
And then water, right? We have to have water. Our bodies are anywhere between, you've probably heard this in literature, anywhere between 50 and 75% water, 80 on the high end. But there's some things in our body that are 90% water.
Blood is 90% water. The plasma. blood is 90% of it and then the cells are the other and then we have cerebral spinal fluid which is also 90% water so water is extremely important.
Um, normal body temperature, like I said, this 37 degrees Celsius is that 98.6 degrees Fahrenheit. If it goes above that, then you have a fever and yes, you can die from a fever. If it goes below that, yes, you can die from hypothermia. So out of range becomes problematic. And then the appropriate atmospheric pressure.
If you are subjected to atmosphere, that's three times normal atmospheric pressure, then you can die. You can die. I'm not lying.
It's an oxygen toxicity that you would experience. If you've ever gone skiing in Colorado, then you know that they tell you that the higher the altitude is, the thinner the air is up there. That means it's just more difficult to get oxygen into the body.
So appropriate atmospheric pressure is necessary for gas exchange in the lungs. So when we talk about being out of balance, being in balance is called homeostasis. homeostasis.
So we like to be in balance. If we're talking about something being too high and problematic and too low being problematic, that means we're out of balance. So homeostasis is our balance, right?
A dynamic state of equilibrium that we continue to adjust. I'll give you an example. We live in Florida. It's 90 plus degrees out there. And when we go outside, we sweat, right?
Now, the reason why we sweat is because the temperature outside is higher than that 98.6 degrees temperature that we have on the inside. And if our organ system in our blood warms up to the same temperature as it is outside, we're going to die. I'm not joking. It's for real. So what does the body do?
It adjusts its temperature. How does it do that? Sends a signal. It's a sympathetic nervous system, but sends a signal, increases blood flow to the surface of the skin, which causes perspiration, which means we have evaporative.
cooling that takes place when we sweat. That's what happens. Now I'm from Michigan. I don't mind telling you that the other day in Michigan, it was in the forties and then overnight it was dropping down to the thirties and they had a, a, not a storm, but, um, snow, snow flurries that were supposed to happen. This was like last week on Friday, last week on Friday, May.
Anyway, needless to say, if you go out there and you don't have the protective covering, right? So you don't have your winter coats and boots and all that other stuff. The temperature is extremely cold. It's much colder than what our blood is at that 98.6 degrees. If our blood was to meet that external temperature, we would die.
So what do we do? Our body takes the warm blood, shunts it to the core of the body to keep the organs running properly, which means people who are exposed to extremely cold temperatures without protection could lose their fingers, their nose, their ears, their toes to frostbite. Because the blood, the warm blood, didn't go to those extremities. Instead, the body did what we call vasoconstriction, made the vessels very, very, very small, and shunted the blood to the core, which is where the organ systems are. It's amazing.
And that's just a temperature thing. We do that with glucose. We do that with oxygen and carbon dioxide. It's just homeostasis.
It's just so amazing. We'll get to a lot of those other things in 2086. But anyway, so... we have to be constant, right?
In that balance. So we monitor it. That lovely brain of ours is always monitoring it.
And then the endocrine system will secrete hormones or chemical signals to help us get back into balance. So we have the nervous system, the endocrine system, and other systems that help us maintain balance. Variables, the things that change, your blood sugar, which is glucose, your body temperature, which is the example that I just gave you going outside in the hot and the cold, and then your blood volume.
So the amount of blood, those are just examples. that when they vary, we, as a organism that's run by this beautiful brain, will help get us back into balance. Let's see.
Homeostatic controls of variables include three components, a receptor, the control center, and the effector. And I don't mind telling you that, again, the control center is that beautiful brain of ours. The receptor is the one that receives the stimulus. The stimulus could be that it's cold. The stimulus could be that it's hot.
The stimulus could be that your blood glucose is high. The stimulus could be that your blood glucose is too low. So the stimulus, right, is what's going to send the signal to the brain, and the brain is going to respond appropriately and send the signal to the effector, and you will go back into balance. So this is everything I just said, I promise. The receptor is the sensor, right?
It monitors the environment, responds to the stimulus, and then sends it to the control center. What's the control center? The brain.
The control center determines what the set point is. It's the hypothalamus that determines your body temperature, 98.6 degrees. Anyway, it determines the set point at which that variable is going to be maintained, 98.6 degrees, and then receives that information from the receptor if it's too high or too low, and then gives the appropriate response. Either you're going to sweat because it was too high, or you're going to shiver. Because it was cold, and when you shiver, you're shaking your muscles, and your muscles generate heat.
And then there's also the shunting of the blood so that you can keep the core of the system warm, right? The organs. It's so cool. So the effector is, again, what's going to deliver the response.
Receives the output from the control center, the brain. Provides the means for the response. Now, here's the thing.
There's negative feedback and there's positive feedback. Negative feedback, which sounds negative. It is actually a very good thing. Negative feedback is the most widely used feedback mechanism that we have in the human body because negative feedback takes the end product, the desired end, and turns off the system.
So once we get to what we need, we're like, hey, there's no sense in keep going and keep going and keep going and keep going, wasting energy to keep going and then wasting the product. Why? Because we have the desired amount.
I'll give you an example. I'm negative feedback and it's going to be blood glucose. So let's say that you guys had breakfast this morning and immediately after following a meal, your blood glucose levels go up.
This is normal. Well, the blood glucose level is the stimulus, right? That it's higher. And that stimulus then is going to go to the brain and the brain then tells the pancreas to secrete insulin and then insulin is released and it tells the blood glucose to get into the cells.
When the blood glucose gets into the cells, then your blood glucose level goes down. When your blood glucose level goes down into normal range, we shut off the insulin production because we've reached the desired end product. Your blood glucose is now in range. If we didn't have negative feedback, what would happen is insulin would continue to release, be released from the pancreas. Insulin would continue to make your blood glucose go down, lower and lower and lower.
and lower and lower. And if you get below the range, now you are hypoglycemic instead of hyperglycemic. Hyperglycemic means your blood glucose is high. Hypoglycemic means your blood glucose is low.
And this whole thing that we're talking about is being in balance, so homeostasis. So too low blood sugar is a problem. Too high blood sugar is a problem.
Negative feedback, make sure that we stay in range. It's amazing. It's amazing.
Positive feedback, you even though it's less widely used in our body, positive feedback is responsible for delivering babies. When a uterus contracts, it sends a signal for oxytocin, and oxytocin causes the uterus to contract. And when the uterus contracts, it sends a signal for more oxytocin. And when the oxytocin is released and gets to the uterus, it causes the uterus to contract.
And a contracting uterus causes oxytocin to be released. And get the point? Positive feedback means that the end product goes back and enhances the original stimulus.
And that's how you get the baby to come out. All right, so negative feedback, I promise you it's everything I just said. Negative feedback, most widely used feedback mechanism that's used in our bodies. It shuts off the original stimulus. So our desired end product shuts off the original stimulus.
Two examples, I've already given you the body temperature one and the insulin one, but let's go to the body temperature one and think of it as a thermostat. If our thermostat is set in our house at, I don't know how cold you like it in your house, but let's say that it's set at 68 degrees. So it's a cool 68 degrees in the house. Somehow, I don't know, electrical surge and the, you know, air conditioning shut off.
The house warms up to 74 degrees, 75 degrees, 76 degrees. And you're like, oh my gosh, I've got to get my thermostat fixed. You get it fixed.
You set it back to 68. And cold air. air will pump into the house until the house reaches 68 degrees. When it reaches 68 degrees, because that's what you set the thermostat at, then it's going to shut off.
See, negative feedback. When it gets to the desired amount, it shuts off. So same with our body temperature.
We are going to shiver to try to bring our body temperature up by generating heat. And then we are going to sweat to bring our body temperature down, right, through evaporative cooling. and try to reach our zone. We'll keep sweating until we get to that body, that desired body temperature.
And we'll keep shivering until we get to the desired body temperature. That's negative feedback. Let's see.
So this is everything that I just told you before. The amount of blood glucose is going to be the stimulus. If it's, you know, in this case, it's going to be high.
The pancreas secretes the insulin. And of course that's under, you know, the control center. So the brain tells it to do that.
And then the effectors are going to be the fact that the insulin tells the cells, right, to take in the glucose, which is going to decrease the blood glucose levels. Then this is the thermostat one or the body temperature one. This is out of balance too high, and that means that your body temperature is raising.
So increased temperature, control center says you need to sweat. Effectors calls you to sweat. Evaporative cooling takes place, and you get back into balance. This bottom one is out of balance too low, right? So your body temperature is too low.
That's what the receptor is telling you that the body temperature is low. Control center says, okay, well, let's get her or him to shiver. In this picture, it's the him. So let's get him to shiver.
You're shivering. That's shaking your... skeletal muscle. Skeletal muscle generates heat that helps bring your body temperature back into normal.
Negative feedback. So cool. And then positive feedback, like I said, it enhances the original stimulus. So enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus. They have two examples down here.
The enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin, which is the one that I just gave you. And the other one that they have is the platelet plug formation for blood clotting. So I'll go and show you because this is the one that they gave you in pictures.
So what happens is that when you tear a vessel, the blood leaks outside of the vessel. So our blood flows through vessels and the vessels are supposed to be intact. Well, that is the signal that blood is leaking outside of the vessel. So what it does is that it calls for platelets.
And then platelets, when they aggregate and adhere to the part where the vessel is torn, they send a chemical signal for more platelets. And so more platelets come and then they adhere to the place where the break is. And they send out a chemical signal for guess what? More platelets.
And then those platelets come and adhere to the place where, and we form this plug. And when the plug is formed, then we have sealed off, if you guys can see my arrow, then we've sealed off that break and no more blood is leaking outside. But the stimulus is sending more platelets, right?
So the stimulus, which is the original part. It's saying I need platelets and those platelets send a signal and those platelets come and they send a signal for more platelets and then those platelets come and they send a signal for more platelets. That's positive feedback.
All right. So out of balance is a problem, right? So disturbances in homeostasis provides a problem. Too low is a problem. Too high is a problem.
Too low is a problem. Too high is a problem. So changes.
are associated with aging. As you get older, the system just doesn't work as well as it should be. So our control systems are less efficient. If negative feedback mechanisms become overwhelmed, then destructive positive feedback mechanisms can take over. I just told you earlier that negative feedback was a positive thing.
And even positive feedback can be a positive thing depending on what the circumstances are. But too many positive feedback mechanisms is a problem. So too much of a good thing can still be a problem.
Remember I told you about oxygen? We have to have oxygen. It's necessary. We cannot survive but a few minutes without oxygen, but too much oxygen could be deadly.
So too much and too little of anything in our systems could be detrimental to our health. That is part one. Now part two is not a full lecture.
Part two is me telling you that I have already given you a Quizlet link. to these things that are here. And if you haven't looked at it yet, that's fine, but please look at it. So these are directional anatomical terms and positions.
And I use the Quizlet set that came from this author. So basically you'll see these exact pictures and they will have put them into note cards. So you click on the note card and it'll show you one side and then the other side. And I promise you, it's gonna be the easiest way to know your terminology.
So again, like I said, earlier, I use this one like anterior towards the head. Ventral is like the belly side, posterior towards the back, or dorsal is like the back, like a dorsal fin. But that's how I would teach language.
So I don't teach it. I'm telling you though, that you are responsible for it. You have to know the language. And I've given you a link for the Quizlet set on these.
So medial, midline of the body, lateral on the sides of the body, intermediate is between the medial and lateral. That's how I would teach it. I'll also go on and tell you that if you look in the lab, you'll see that the skeletal system is divided into axial and appendicular.
So these terms right here, it's why it matters. And then these pictures right here, see where it says orbital and it says oral and cervical. Make sure you know what those refer to as far as the body. So they're giving you the correct anatomical terms for them.
So see where it says. That antebrachial is the forearm and carpal is the wrist. That's one of the ones that I mentioned earlier was carpal wrist. And then down here are the tarsals. Tarsal is the ankle.
Does that make sense? So make sure you know that. And then otic is ear. That's one of the ones that I gave you.
So cephalic is head, but cephalic and cranial could both mean head. So that's what I mean about the language. You have to know the language, okay?
So this is just going through body planes and sections. And I gave you a Quizlet set for those. So please make sure that you know those, okay?
All right, and I can just, I guess, flip through them all. It's what you're going to learn on your own. Yay. All right, and then that is the lecture. Okay, so I've stopped recording, and what you can do now, and oh, look, we did a few more people who came on.
So what you can do now is, if you want to, you can unmute your microphones, and you can also come on if you want to. you know, kind of see the class because we don't get an opportunity to see each other because everything is done virtual, virtually. If you, you know, aren't, oh wait, I didn't stop the recording yet. Sorry.
So wait.