Eastern Question

Overview

• The Eastern Question refers to the political and economic instability within the Ottoman Empire from the late 18th to early 20th centuries.
• Resulted in strategic competition and political considerations among European great powers.
• The Ottoman Empire was weakening, threatening the balance of power in Europe.
• The term "Eastern Question" encompasses several aspects:
  • Ottoman military defeats and institutional insolvency.
  • Ottoman modernization efforts.
  • Ethno-religious nationalism in Ottoman provinces.
  • Rivalries among Great Powers.

Key Historical Events

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire was at its height in 1683 but began declining after losing the Battle of Vienna.
• The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the end of Ottoman control in Central Europe.

Russo-Turkish Wars

• Several Russo-Turkish wars occurred in the 18th century, highlighting the decline of the Ottoman Empire.

Napoleonic Era

• Napoleon's invasion of Egypt temporarily distracted Russia from advances against the Ottomans.
• The Treaty of Tilsit (1807) created an alliance between France and Russia against Britain, impacting Ottoman territories.

Greek War of Independence (1821-1832)

• Greece declared independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821.
• European powers intervened due to political interests and romantic cultural motivations.
• The Treaty of Adrianople (1829) and Treaty of Constantinople (1832) granted Greece independence.

Egyptian-Ottoman War (1831-1833)

• Conflict arose between Muhammad Ali of Egypt and the Ottoman Sultan.
• The Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi (1833) gave Russia dominance over the Ottomans.

The Great Eastern Crisis (1875-1878)

• Uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria led to interventions by European powers.
• The Treaty of San Stefano (1878) was revised by the Congress of Berlin, limiting Russian influence.

Young Turk Revolution (1908)

• The Committee of Union and Progress led a rebellion against Sultan Abdul Hamid II.
• Initiated the Second Constitutional Era in the Ottoman Empire.

Conclusion

• The Eastern Question and the subsequent decline of the Ottoman Empire reshaped the political landscape of Europe and the Middle East.
• Eventually, the First World War and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire concluded the Eastern Question with the formation of modern Turkey in 1923.