All right, good evening. Now we're moving into Chapter 10 of the Psychology Second Edition textbook on motivation and emotion. And here we go. All right, so emotions, as many of us know, can change in an instant. Here you see what looks like a pretty unexpected event.
And this is actually a picture of the Boston Marathon bombing, right? And the aftermath of it. And so, you know, what we're going to look at in this chapter is we're going to look at motivation and the different things that motivate us.
And then we're going to look at emotions and what are emotions as we move through this. So the first thing we're going to talk about is motivation and some theories about motivation. And when it comes to motivation, there are two types that I'm going to start off with.
And the first type is intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. So these are the reasons why different reasons and different factors, right, that people are motivated. And the motivation really is, is What is it that I want or need that directs my behavior toward a goal? Like, why am I motivated to do certain things?
Or why am I not motivated to do certain things, right? So intrinsic motivation, excuse me, intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors. In other words, it comes from within us.
Right. And so these are behaviors that are performed because they bring a sense of personal satisfaction. Right.
And so in the in the figure here. So we have intrinsic motivation, in other words, from within. And this is where we experience autonomy, a sense of mastery, a sense of purpose.
Right. And so that's intrinsic or internal motivation, extrinsic motivation. is that type of motivation that arises as the result of something outside of ourselves, external factors.
And that, in extrinsic motivation, basically means that the behaviors that I'm engaged in is designed to help me receive something from others. So it's all outside of me. So some examples would be like compensation, right?
So I'm extrinsically motivated to work because I want a paycheck. However, I'm going to use this as an example. You can't have extrinsic and intrinsic motivation at the same time. Like I love psychology and I love teaching AODS students, right?
So yes, I get a paycheck for that, right? Which is certainly important. important for my extrinsic motivation and my finances as well, right?
But my intrinsic motivation, this is where it gives me a sense of purpose. I enjoy, I love working with students and teaching new things and exploring things with students. And so that's an example of my intrinsic motivation.
So people can be, depending on the circumstances, they can experience both intrinsic and uh, extrinsic motivation at the same time. Um, just as well that somebody could be extrinsically motivated. And I'm going to use like an example from, um, from drug court, right?
I actually deal with intrinsic and extrinsic motivation with clients every single day. And in the learning chapter, we talked about operant conditioning, which is one of the theories behind some of the therapeutic interventions that we use. Um, in drug court, right?
Operant conditioning, um, which is impacted by one's in intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, if that makes sense. Right. So, um, cause the other part of extrinsic, if we're just going to focus here for a second with operant conditioning, there's compensation, there's punishments, there's rewards.
And so like in drug court, you know, I shared with you that, um, that, that clients, uh, when their behavior is appropriate and they're doing well. They could be experiencing extrinsic motivation only. Hey, I'm on probation.
I got to do this. People are looking over my shoulders. Or they could be experiencing intrinsic motivation.
But it doesn't really matter at this point, too, because we're still going to engage them with operant conditioning. Kudos. If it goes the other way, and if somebody's specifically extrinsically motivated, they may not engage in a behavior.
because they don't want the punishment, right? So just a couple of examples, and I hope I didn't muck it up too much. So it's possible to experience both simultaneously, but it's also possible to just experience one or the other, again, depending on the circumstances and the individual that we're talking about, right? So intrinsic versus extrinsic. motivation, what drives our behavior.
Then within this, there's a couple of other things we want to kind of dive into, right? So first is the over-justification effect. And what that says is that intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is diminished.
give it. So research suggests that something that we love to do, like icing cakes, becomes our job, our intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivations to do it may change. And I do want to stress may, right? It doesn't always necessarily mean that it will. But the idea here is once we're receiving extrinsic motivation, like being paid, we may lose the motivation to do it.
just for enjoyment. And so, and icing cakes, and I'm going to come back to me for a minute, right? Like I've been, I've been teaching at city college while going on, well, this is my fifth year doing this. Right.
And I would say that my motivation to do this for enjoyment has not really diminished. So it, I love working with students. So Yeah.
That's why I stress the may. But it's certainly if you're doing something as a hobby and then you start getting paid for it, you may lose interest in it. It may change. And then some explanations of the differences, right, might be the type of reinforcement that is used. So, for instance, tangible rewards do appear to decrease intrinsic motivation.
So the idea of getting paid, you love icing cakes, you now get paid, you're getting that money, and your intrinsic motivation to do it may change. So in other words, you may not bake at home anymore. That would be an example of how somebody might see that intrinsic motivation change because the behavior changes outside of that environment. And then.
intangible rewards appear to increase motivation. So an example of intangible rewards, I'll give you an example. Like tonight before class started, I was talking with a student about their paper and kind of going over some things. And to me, that was rewarding. I enjoyed doing that, enjoyed helping students, right?
I had office hours with another student. earlier this week, right? And I enjoyed that interaction because I'm doing what I love to do.
That is an intangible reward. I'm like, I'm not getting, I don't feel like I'm getting paid to do that, right? Like I'm just doing that.
And then item number two on here under the other bullet points, expectation of the intrinsic, I'm sorry, I misspoke, expectation of the extrinsic reward. um, intrinsic motivation is more likely to decrease if an extrinsic reward is expected. So in other words, if I go in, um, and I'm going to do something, engage in a particular behavior or activity, and I'm expecting to be rewarded, I might be thinking more about that reward than I am about my own, um, intrinsic reasons for doing it.
If so. I want to make sure I did not confuse anybody. So does that make sense? And does anybody have any questions on the type of reinforcement and when? intrinsic motivation may decrease or increase based on the reward type.
And like I said, if a question comes up, not now, but yes, sir. Go ahead, Todd. You know, you know, Professor, that actually reminds me growing up.
It's like in this conversation that you're having growing up, you know, I grew up skateboarding. I love skateboarding. And it was always like my. my lifetime goal was to like turn professional get my own model and get paid to do it and i mean i literally lived for skin and i still do but now it was this i was a passion before i started getting paid the moment that i reached that goal i got my own pro model was it there was expectations to show up the contest and um everything else that came with the lifestyle i can completely lost interest.
The passion was dead. And I was just like, wow, where did this go? And then it really spiraled downhill.
And, and unfortunately I got into doing some other things, but the good news is, you know, and I quit, I was like, uh, you know, the paycheck wasn't worth it. And it actually brought me back to the roots and, and, you know, to like, enjoy actually getting on my skateboard. I can't, I can't skateboard like I used to, but I enjoy it.
more than ever now yeah and and so what i heard you in a nutshell what i heard you say was once you started to go professional it was no longer fun absolutely that intrinsic motivation just yeah yeah yeah it was no longer fun and that is a perfect example thank you uh thank you for sharing that that is that is a perfect example of what this slide is talking about great example thank you All right. All right. So let's see here. Hold on. This isn't working.
Okay. So what is this? Is this intrinsic or extrinsic motivation?
So Kevin was not enrolled in school, nor did he have a job that required mathematical skills or reasoning. Yet he spent several nights a week reading and solving problems in an old calculus textbook. how would you best explain this behavior? What do you guys think? Oh, I see a chat already.
Oops. Oh, that was a last comment. Same thing with being a college athlete. Yes. Motivation may change based on whether or not they go professional or not, is what I'm assuming you're saying.
All right. What do you guys think about Kevin? Is he intrinsically motivated or is he extrinsically motivated? Interest, interest. Can we say it interestingly?
Yeah, interest. The I. Yeah, the I one, yes. Yeah, and I was saying it. So, yes, and there's a couple of other people that have typed in the chat and they agree with you.
It is intrinsic motivation. Now, we can't see his intrinsic motivation, can we? All we can see is his behavior and surmise that he is intrinsically motivated because, well, I don't know about you, but I don't think I would be.
Yeah, math is not my thing. So awesome, awesome, Kevin. He is definitely intrinsically motivated.
And you can see here, I have that same figure from before. And I'll bet he's focusing on mastery at this point, right? As part of his intrinsic motivation.
Very good. All right. So then we have the instinct theory of motivation, right? And so William James proposed this.
And basically what he said is that our behavior is driven by our instincts, which is designed to help us survive. Right. So he improved. I'm sorry. He proposed instincts such as mother's protection of her baby, the urge to lick sugar.
Right. The desire to go hunting, hunting prey. And however, it was criticized because of he didn't really consider the role of learning in shaping human behavior. So, in other words.
they're like, yeah, some of this might be correct. And we are going to try to talk about drive theory. and other reasons why people are motivated. Let's see. But learning is definitely a part of, would be a part of that as well.
And somebody else is sharing that I was intrinsically motivated in reading all the material in psychology. So glad I did it. Paid forward with my grade.
Nice. I love it. You guys are great. All right. Oops.
Sorry, my clicker stopped. Now, there's the drive theory of motivation. And drive theory basically proposes that we need to maintain homeostasis.
Who remembers what homeostasis is? Pop quiz. Well, no, no points, but.
What is remaining maintaining balance, maintaining balance? Exactly. Right.
So if we become if our homeostasis is disturbed, right, that drive to maintain homeostasis is is going to direct our behavior. Right. So, for example, deviations in homeostasis create physiological needs. Right.
resulting in a physiological drive state that directs our behavior. And again, you'll see physiological on this exam and psychological on this exam. So you want to make sure you're reading those words carefully so that you don't pick the wrong one.
But what it does is it emphasizes that the role of habits better to develop in which we regularly engage. excuse me, play into our behavioral responses, right? So if a behavior that we're engaging in successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior in the future.
So I'm going to swing back to my real life examples, you know, like when I'm working with clients, right, doing therapy and counseling, you know, sometimes we're exploring different reasons, different drives as to why a person may be using drugs. One term that is very common in the recovery community and in the treatment community is this idea of self-medication, that a person who is experiencing psychological anxiety, not necessarily a physiological thing, but psychological anxiety, I'm just going to use that. as an example, and they use alcohol and they discover that using alcohol calms them, right? Reduces their anxiety, right? Because they're in an inebriated state to them, that would be a successful behavior because their goal was to reduce their anxiety.
And it worked as a result of that. that individual is probably going to be more likely to engage in alcohol use repeatedly, right? To the point where, you know, in the beginning, it's probably not a problem, right? But at some point, that repeated use results in addiction, as an example.
And then hunger and subsequent eating are also the result of, and I want to say this too, complex physiological processes that maintain homeostasis, right? So there's lots of physiological factors involved in hunger and eating and maintaining homeostasis, energy for the body, things like that. So that's the drive theory of motivation.
Oops. Sometimes when I go off this, the clicker doesn't work. And then the next theory of motivation is known as arousal theory.
And arousal theories assert that there is an optimal level of performance. Let me see if let me turn on my laser pointer here. Right.
So if you if we're starting down here and you're looking at this axis. Right. So this is. This axis represents...
the quality of the performance of the activity or behavior in which a person is engaged, right? So this is low quality. This is high quality.
And then on this axis is the level of arousal, right? From low arousal to high arousal. And you'll see on this bell curve that the optimal level of of of quality of performance is kind of midline between boredom and high anxiety, right?
So high arousal level, this person is extremely anxious. And you'll notice that their quality of performance is very, very low. Same thing if a person is bored or apathetic, disinterested, experience anhedonia, things like that, their quality of performance is, uh, is very poor. There is the idea that there is an optimal level of arousal. In other words, in order for us to complete tasks, we have to have some level of arousal in order to do that, right?
If we're under aroused, we become, and that's what this represents. We become bored. And then what we do is we go out, we seek stimulation.
Um, so Oftentimes, and this is another interesting thing when I'm working with my clients, one of many people in treatment for substance use disorders often describe boredom as a trigger to use, well, to use drugs or alcohol, but also a trigger to engage in other behaviors that create drama. Because they just can't handle like sitting with themselves. Sometimes when I'm working with a client, I'll ask them, they'll say, God, I'm just so bored. And I'll ask them, are you bored?
Or are you just experiencing a sense of peace for the first time in a very long time, right? And it could be that they're bored or that they're experiencing something that they haven't experienced and they're not used to it. So I kind of try to tease that out. But if they can't identify it, whether it's just, wow, there's just no drama in my life right now. And I'm so used to it that I'm like, I don't know what to do or that I'm bored.
It doesn't matter because they may be risking relapse at that point as well. Because if they're under aroused, they're going to seek stimulation. They're going to do something.
If they're over aroused, like my high anxiety guy that I use as an example, and he wants to reduce that anxiety. he's going to engage in maybe drug seeking behavior or, you know, consuming the alcohol like I was using before. And I'm kind of using it in a treatment format as a, as a, an example, because that's what I, that's what I do all day long. So research suggests that moderate arousal level right here, this is moderate.
um, is best for performance. Multiple performance is best when it's at a moderate arousal. And you might have a couple of questions on the exam that, um, may, uh, may test your concept. So I'll just ask you.
I'm not sure if this question is on the test, but it's one that's come to my mind. You know, if you're a person and you are trying to, let's say you're working on a bomb squad and you're trying to deactivate a bomb, where would your arousal level be for best performance, do you think? Where would that be? It would be really high.
Well, but for optimal performance, where do you think it should be? Moderate arousal? Yeah, I would say moderate to low, right? Low then.
Yeah. So that was a question to kind of get you to think about this just a little bit, right? If you are on a bomb squad. and you're experiencing high anxiety.
which by the way, that was a perfectly natural response. I would never be on a bomb squad because I don't think I could have moderate to low anxiety, but that is what you would need in order to dismantle that bomb. Otherwise you'd have trouble thinking, you'd probably be shaking, you're gonna make a mistake and that bomb is gonna go off. So the calmer you are in that type of a situation, the better your performance is gonna be. See that coming up.
So, for example, this is known as. So my question is based on the Yerkes-Dodson law. Right. And you'll notice that on this chart, I'm going to put on my laser pointer. You have kind of like a double bell curve.
Right. And if it is an easy task that you are doing. That's what represents the reddish line here, right?
You can see that you can be above moderate, you know, more than just a little bit more than moderate and still be okay. And if it is a difficult task, such as dismantling a bomb, you're going to want to be on the lower side of moderate, if that makes sense. So that demonstrates the Yerkes-Dodson law. And that basically says that...
that task performance is best when arousal levels are in the middle of range, but with difficult tasks, best performance are at lower levels of arousal, and simple tasks are best performed under higher levels of arousal. And that's why you have the double bell curve here. So does that make sense?
If you will... I definitely want you guys to kind of know this. There's probably two or three different questions that you might see on that because remember, not everybody gets the same question. But it's all designed to kind of like test this concept.
All right. Okay, so now we're moving into self-efficacy and motivation and motives. And so self-efficacy is another thing that I work with clients on a daily basis as well.
And what this is, is this is an individual's belief in his or her own capability to complete a task. So oftentimes what I see when I'm working with clients, if they don't think that they can do something, they may not even try it. And there's also a...
Another term, you're not going to be tested on this in this section. You will hear about it again in the therapy and the pathology sections at the end of the chapter. But this idea of learned helplessness, like where a person's self-efficacy is just so poor that they've engaged in learned helplessness.
They don't do anything. They rely on others, right? So self-efficacy is really, really important for a person's autonomy, confidence, and their ability to function.
And Albert Bandura, you'll recall him from the last chapter, he theorized that self-efficacy plays a role in motivating behavior. Right. So his argument was that motivation derives from expectations that are held about the consequences of behavior.
And that beliefs about our abilities will determine what we do and what goals we set for ourselves. So if I have low self-efficacy, I'm probably not going to set my goals very high. And if I'm not setting my goals very high, my behaviors are probably going to match that.
Right. So that's that's one idea of this argument. And then the other motives include social motives. Right. So there's the need for achievement, the need for affiliation, and the need for intimacy.
So for those students out there that are need for achievement, right? You're studying really hard. You're turning everything in on time. You're doing all of these things because your need for achievement is. directly related to that A grade at the end of the semester that you will earn as a result of that. So that drives your behavior, right?
The need for affiliation, right? This is what encourages positive interactions with others, right? That drive to socialize, to affiliate with groups, like we were talking about in the previous chapter very briefly. And then the need for intimacy.
And the need for intimacy causes us to engage in behaviors in which we seek deep and meaningful relationships. And by the way, when I say intimacy, it doesn't necessarily mean sexual intimacy, although we are going to talk about sexual motivations shortly. But intimacy in non-sexual ways is like those deep, meaningful relationships, having a best friend that you can tell anything to, jab those moments with, right?
Also, the type of intimacy that we're talking about. And then I think this is the last slide before we move into sex. But then there's Maslow's hierarchy of needs. And many of you may have heard of the hierarchy of needs. I actually.
There are some criticisms with Maslow's hierarchy. And it also appears like it's delineated, like you have to, well, oh, it's still on. Okay, I still have it on.
So following my laser pointer, right? So he proposed that peoples were motivated by fulfilling certain needs and that until... Some needs can be filled.
Other needs can't be met. So, for example, if we're talking down here on physiological needs, right? So my need to be fed, you know, food, water, shelter, warmth, homeostasis, it comes under these physiological needs.
Sex comes under these physiological needs. Oh, and by the way, I'm not talking about intimacy. or that I'm just talking about just straight sex.
Okay. Um, cause you know, humans, we can do it for love or we can do it for, you know, other needs. Right.
Um, so sex would also fall under this. Although you will find that sexual intimacy will also fall under here as up, up higher, but I'm just talking straight sex here. So His argument was that until physiological needs were met, then it was probably more difficult for someone to be focusing on their social needs or their esteem needs. So that was his idea, that one must satisfy their lower needs before addressing needs at a higher level.
Others have argued that a person can be addressing needs here and here. simultaneously. And I have a tendency to agree with that. It also depends on the individual.
If you are homeless and constantly hungry, you're probably not really focused on too many other things, even if you might want to be. So we have physiological needs and then we have security needs. And this is like safety, a safe neighborhood, an actual house.
And notice here, kind of like I mentioned the difference between sex and sexual intimacy and relationships, same thing with shelter and a safe house and a safe neighborhood, right? They can be two different things. Like I could be in a shelter. but it's not my house, if that makes sense.
Once these are met, then the theory goes that social relationships or social needs can become the focus. So if I no longer have to worry about my safety, if I no longer have to worry about food or water or shelter, then forming friendships or getting back in touch with family or whatever the case may be, feeling that sense of belonging. may become more paramount at this point.
And then after that would be esteem needs. So this is where sense of accomplishment would come in, confidence. self-worth, self-efficacy, those things that we were talking about. And then finally, at the pinnacle would be self-actualization, where the person is, their motivation to engage in things as for totally for inner satisfaction, inner fulfillment. usually based on very moral and philosophical ideals and that kind of stuff.
It's not really demonstrated here, but there has been another proposal in the hierarchy of needs that we also have cognitive needs, but it is not demonstrated here. I just kind of wanted to throw that out. If you ever do any research on Maslow, you'll find, you may find that somebody talks about cognitive needs. That was not in his original, that was not in his original proposal.
And actually, I think at the, in the very, very beginning, he didn't even have the pyramid idea, right? Like, but he did talk about meeting lower needs before going to higher needs. So, but I do like the pyramid design. It makes it very, um, to what I'm looking for.
Easy to see and easy to follow. Does anybody have any question on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, drive theory, any of the theories we've talked about so far? All right, very good.
Okay. So now we're going to talk about sexual behavior. And again, um, sexual behavior is driven by motivations to meet those, uh, those needs as well.
And so we're going to talk about like the physiological mechanisms. Um, we're going to talk about Alfred Kinsey for a little bit, uh, masters and Johnson who actually had a research lab where they, um, where they actually studied individuals masturbating, having intercourse. They did a lot of research. Kinsey did a lot of research as well.
And he published two books that were very controversial in the late 40s and early 50s that we'll talk about. And then we're going to talk about sexual orientation and gender identity. And we may not get through all of this. Tonight, it's almost 830. So like I said, we'll probably have to do part two on Monday. So I have a couple of questions.
So let's, let's just discuss this for a few minutes. So have you discussed sexual intercourse with a grandparent, with a parent, with your siblings? Have you discussed sexual intercourse with? religious leaders pastor priest reverend spiritual advisor and significant other and i had heard one yes and remember we're being recorded so if you don't want your voice on youtube you can type in the chat when i'm live doing this class and i see a chat and i'm going to check it out so somebody said yes um so is that yes to all of these questions Or yes to a particular question.
All right. Chat coming up again. Ah, right. So having the sex talk with your kids, right? To be cautious.
Yeah. And then there are different types of sexual conversations. Another individual says yes to item three and item five. Right.
So discussing with siblings and with significant other. Yeah. OK. Yeah.
So having having those conversations. And then there are different types of conversations, aren't there? There's the locker room talk.
And then there's the. more serious communication maybe that you might have with your partner on. what they enjoy, what they don't enjoy, right?
Believe it or not, sexual intercourse or healthy sexual relationship. And by the way, one of the things that I do in my treatment center is I do a 14 week course on sexual health and recovery. And we address all kinds of issues, including consent and um, communication and partner selection, stuff like that. Oftentimes, individuals with substance use disorders.
Let's see. All right. So the question that I, you know what, I am not sure the answer to, I mean, I do. I cannot think of the name of what they call it nowadays. So somebody is asking about like swingers and things like that.
And here's what I will say about I am a big believer in not judging or labeling a person's sexual behavior. Here's one thing about human beings. And we're going to see this in the research as we go further, including with Kinsey's research, which shows that there are a lot more homosexual activity than people like to, you know, that people would think in the world.
Right. There's a lot more. Well, back then, cheating.
I think today, you know, having more than one partner at the same time. I think people sometimes people just take that for granted. And again, it's like, who am I to judge?
Right? People's people sexual behaviors are their behaviors. And as long as there's communication, and as long as people aren't being hurt, or used, and it's to consenting adults, then you know, I think those two consenting adults can can determine what their behavior is going to be.
All right. So I asked these questions just to kind of spark even your internal thoughts. So even if you didn't answer the questions and thanks for the chats that came in, I really designed this to get us to stop and think about how we address this, even in our own lives.
So for the discussion part, I'm going to, I want to ask a question. What is it that you think guides our sexual attitudes today? Where do we, where do we get our sexual information?
What do you guys think? Media. TV shows, internet, that kind of stuff?
Yes. Internet, media. Exactly. Where else? Where else does it come from?
What about magazines and even pictures, right? Advertisements. Anything else you guys can think of?
And I, our social circles, exactly. Experience is another one. Exactly. Yeah.
Yeah. That's exactly it. Let's see.
The new fifth sexual orientation in school is so explicit. I'm not sure I understand what that is. If you want to class.
Oh, sixth grade. Oh, you mean talking about sex education, that they're teaching kids? Okay. Yes.
Yeah. And I remember. Well, I don't know who's doing it now, but when I was in school, it was one of the coaches that did sex ed.
And I don't recommend that. I think it needs to be somebody that is a little bit more trained in that. Um, and, and, and, uh, yeah, I remember that class.
All right. Well, let's talk about, um, this as well. Right.
So noted, um, sex researcher, Alfred Kinsey observed that sex, right. Which is the biological behavior, um, is merely a behavior that leads to orgasm. Does his definition need further description? Yes or no.
Why or why not? What do you guys think? So is sex only a behavior that leads to orgasm?
So I got a couple of yeses. It looks like. I don't think the definition is necessarily true.
You can engage in sexual behavior that doesn't lead to orgasm. Now that is true. You can engage in sexual behavior that does not lead to orgasm. That is correct. Yeah.
I would also say like, are you, um, no, I think that in the description, because, um, what about like people who don't know that they're asexual and just like have relations just because she's like, please, their partner, they're not doing them for themselves, you know? Right. And by the way, one of the, uh, one of the six principles of. sexual health from the World Health Organization, one of those would be mutual pleasure. So if a person is involved in a sexual activity that they're really not interested in, then they're engaging in behavior that's probably not helping them.
And I say that because that's where communication, which is another principle of sexual health, honesty is another. principle of sexual health, right? So if that's the case, then those two individuals need to have a discussion about their relationship. Because you're right, different people experience different levels of libido, right?
In other words, sex drive. There are people that are perfectly fine having sex only a couple of times a year, right? And if they're in a relationship where that's that's where they're at.
and everybody is fine with that, then they're probably going to be happy. Other people have a higher libido. They are wanting to engage in sexual behavior more frequently, right? And again, there's nothing wrong with either one.
It's just where people's set points are, right? Yeah. So The reason why I brought this up, and for Alfred Kinsey's research, he was actually using this as like an operational definition.
And if you look, if you remember back to chapter two, when we were talking about psychological research, this was one of the, and they talked about the idea of operational definition. When you're researching something, you need to have a way to definitively divide. define something so that you know whether or not you've achieved the data points that you're looking for or not.
And so this was one of the things that he was kind of stuck on. Let's see. All right. So psychology views sex as sexual.
behavior. And there's much more to study and review when one's sexual behavior is the focus of inquiry merely than one act. So that makes sense. And what are the forces that have shaped our perspectives?
I had already started the discussion on that. You guys talked about the internet. You guys talked about advertising.
Let's see, what else have we talked about? I forget now. Our own experiences.
So let's see what we got. No one mentioned religion. So that is definitely something that shapes our perspective.
Family traditions are another one. The media, which was mentioned. Society, and obviously I say that's a very... broad topic here.
Because it also might depend on like American society, we're a very large nation. society in the middle of Kansas might be very different than societal views in New York City, for example. Social media, one's own experiences, which was mentioned, and that was it. So good job on that. All right, let's talk about some early research.
So, you know, we had the Victorian period. which was the late 1800s, early 1900s. And there was a lot of mistaken ideas around sexuality. And one early researcher was Havelock Ellis. And he was a physician that studied sexuality back then.
But he mainly studied it on himself for the most part. But he was like basically searching for reliable and accurate sex information. And by the way, does anybody know what these two items are pictured here? Anybody have any idea?
This is from the Victorian era. I think it's like a chastity belt or something. I don't know.
It's a vest. Yeah. Okay. And where would we put it? Where would these be put, do you think?
I mean, the first one on top has like a bow. So I think I'll like assume that like on the area, like, you know. Yeah. Yeah.
It's okay. I'll say it. So actually I'll tell you, both of these were actually designed for the penis because the idea was back in the day when they had these was that nocturnal emissions and erections in, in the middle of the night, which by the way. all men get sexually aroused as they sleep. That's why most men make up with a morning erection.
It's just part of the sexual arousal cycle. But the belief was back then was that that would actually cause harm. And so these were designed, they would, you would, before bed, you would wrap them, you would put it on your penis, so that if you became aroused in the middle of the night, this would interrupt. that arousal. So yeah, here's to the Victorian era.
So, and so he's so have like Ellis, he doubted that he was like, I don't think that that's true. And so that's why he started doing his own research, but he used himself as a subject for most of it. All right, so let's talk about some Oh, good.
We still got some time. Some physiological mechanisms for that. So the hypothalamus plays a very important role in motivating behavior, including sexual behavior. And some of the ways that they know this is because lesions, lesions, right? So this is how they, they'll put lesions on certain areas of the brain.
of mice, for example, or the hypothalamus completely disrupt a male rat's ability to engage in sexual behavior, but it does not seek, I mean, I'm sorry, it does not affect his sexual motivation. So in other words, the rat is no longer able to perform sexually, you know, engage in sexual behavior, but he is still seeking access to receptive females. So what this suggests, this study suggests, is that the ability to engage in sexual behavior and the motivation to do so are handled by different systems of the brain. And so in humans, disorders that involve abnormal hypothalamic function are often associated with hypogonadism.
And so remember, whenever you see the word hypo, that means lower. Hyper means upper, right? So hypogonadism is reduced functions of the gonads and thereby reduced sexual functions. And then hormones secreted by the endocrine system.
I mean, the endocrine glands, testosterone influence sexual motivation and behavior as well. And then there's the amygdala. And who remembers?
when we talked about the amygdala before. What does that... usually regulates who remembers you will see that on the test fear yeah fear emotions exactly right um but it is also involved in sexual behavior um but does not affect the ability to engage in it so yes uh let's see so damage in rats results in decreased motivation um to engage in sexual behavior while the ability to do it is still intact so it's kind of like opposite of what we were just talking about on the previous slide again indicating that there's different brain areas that affect um uh motivation uh as well as the ability to engage in the behavior All right, so let's talk about Kinsey. So Kinsey started doing research because there was just not a lot of information on sex during the late 1940s. And so what he did was he initiated a large scale survey.
And so if you'll recall from chapter two, when we talked about surveys, one of the important things for surveys to real, especially if you're going to ask questions like this is the being assured of anonymity, right? People are more likely to answer honestly if it's not going to be tied back to them, right? So he interviewed and also conducted surveys with 18,000 participants with very detailed questions on sexual behaviors.
And what he discovered was, is that behaviors that were thought to be where were actually reviewed to be more common than previously thought. Right. So so his research was just it was very influential in shaping future human.
sexual behavior and motivation type research, right? So here's some of the findings. Women are as interested and as experienced in sex as men. Both males and females masturbate without negative health consequences, and that homosexual acts were actually fairly common.
And he also described what's known as the Kinsey scale. Some of you may have heard of it, maybe not. I believe I have it on the next slide. Yes, I do.
And so the Kinsey scale was basically from zero to six. And at the zero end of the scale, as you can see here, let me turn on my laser pointer. At the zero end of the scale, this is an individual who is exclusively heterosexual.
So. only heterosexual behavior, attitudes, whatever. They're exclusively heterosexual. And then it begins, and then it goes to the other end of the spectrum, which is six, which is exclusively homosexual. So in other words, this individual is only engaged in homosexual relationships.
But from zero to six, it basically goes like this, and you can kind of see how he how it's depicted here. So one is predominantly heterosexual, but has had some incidental homosexual activity, right? And remember, homosexual activity is any same-sex sexual activity and not necessarily intercourse, by the way. And then two is predominantly heterosexual, but has experienced...
more than incidental homosexual activity. And then three, what we might actually label today or call today is like, for instance, bisexual would be equally heterosexual and homosexual. And then four would be predominantly homosexual, but more incidentally heterosexual. Five would be predominantly homosexual with only incidental heterosexual activities.
And then like I said earlier, six is. exclusively homosexual. And then he also had on those that really hadn't experienced any social, uh, sociosexual contacts or reactions. Uh, now this is really kind of describing behavior only.
Um, and the thing with human sexuality is that it is more complex than, than the act itself, if that makes sense. Um, other things to consider too is, um, with that is what the person's actual attraction is beyond the behavior, what their general genital attraction is, et cetera, what their emotional attachments may be. So a lot more complex than just turning off my laser printer.
than what might be indicated just by this very simple graph. Let's see. Oops.
Professor, you say this is only for behaviors, right? Well, this is how he listed it, right? From what people were telling him, what behaviors that they were engaging in, right?
The tendencies, okay. Yeah. So now there are some criticisms to...
Alfred Kinsey's research. Some of the criticism is one that it was, you know, surveys, but also that a lot of the participants were actually incarcerated. So if a person is incarcerated, they may engage in what might be known as just situational homosexual activity. So in other words, there's no genital, no real genital attraction.
There's no emotional attraction. That it is kind of like going back to, if we go back to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the physiological, the very bottom, somebody is just needing sex and they're engaging in sexual behavior for that release, right? So that was some of the criticism.
But he did publish two books. And, um, uh. And I think one of the things that he did establish that is probably accurate is that human sexual activity is way more complex than we give credit for. Would situational and incidental homosexual acts be considered the same thing or different?
You know, that's a really good question. I would say yes and no. So let's go back here.
So, and that's also think of some age differences. It is actually very normal activity for children. For example, I'll show you yours, you show me mine.
That could be boys, that could be girls, could be boys and girls. Also remember that, so there's those. types of situations.
And that might be incidental, also situational. It's natural to explore. And then in adolescence, when puberty hits, right, there might be some exploration, or incidental or situational things that come up, right. And I'm not like an expert on all of these, these areas. However, with my sexual health in um, in recovery, uh, groups that I do, I'll give you an example, um, of what might be considered incidental, um, homosexual activity is I've actually worked with lots of guys over the years that when they're under the influence of meth, right, which actually increases a person's libido, uh, they may be exclusively homo heterosexual, right.
But under the influence of meth, They may engage in homosexual activity just because of the drug use and the increased libido and the availability of whatever partner is there, right? The other thing, too, that also comes up is sometimes people engage in this behavior under the influence of drugs because they wouldn't ordinarily allow themselves to do it if they weren't under the influence. So there are also people that have, maybe they have. homosexual attractions that never act on it. Does that make sense?
Or they, in the past, like using drugs to, in order to act on it or to explore without feeling guilty later. So I think that's kind of a long, complex way of answering your question. But I'm not sure there's like a really easy answer.
Was that helpful at all? Yeah, it was. I was kind of curious about how it would basically affect the survey results. If like in the survey results would incidentally be the same thing as situational, given the fact that he was surveying with a large prison population.
Yeah. And I think he was only really focused on, again, going back to his definition of the behavior. resulting in orgasm.
And I don't think he was very focused on the emotional ties or lack thereof. Does that make sense? Because when we talk about heterosexuality and homosexuality, bisexuality, right, we're not only talking about the actual act itself, but the emotions that are involved, the attractions that are involved, all of that other stuff.
And and I think he was just really mainly focused on behavior. And it showed that there was a lot of behavior that was occurring that people just did not expect to be revealed. Then there was Masters and Johnson.
And I think what we're going to do because, well, I'm trying to think what. All right. Go through this slide.
I'll show you a video. And then I think we're going to end for the night because that will push us right up to about that that time. So Masters and Johnson's research, they conducted studies of the physiological responses during sexual behavior.
And so what they did was, is they had a laboratory and they actually observed people engaging in sexual behaviors. So first of all, let me just say it's amazing that Kinsey was able to do his research, interviewing people and doing these surveys. And now think about this.
Masters and Johnson got people to come into their lab and be watched while masturbating, engaging or having intercourse. they did a lot of research around this, right? So what they came up with was the sexual response cycle.
And actually, what's here is a very simplified view. And it's really the male version, by the way. Because the female version is a little bit more complex. And I don't think I have it on here.
I actually, when I'm usually in the classroom, I usually draw it on the whiteboard to show the differences between the male sex response cycle and the female sex response cycle. So what's being demonstrated here is the male. So we have the excitement phase, and that's the arousal phase.
So in the men, that would be where the erection would occur. And in women, that's where lubrication would occur. And then there's the plateau phase, which is increased swelling and blood flow to the labia minora.
The pre-ejaculatory fluid is happening during the plateau phase. And then the orgasm is those rhythmic contractions, right, and ejaculation. And then the resolution phase is returned to an unroused state. And for most men, you see, they lose their erection most of the time.
It's so funny. Whenever I'm doing my class, all the guys in the class say, well, that doesn't happen to me. It's like, stop posturing.
It happens to most men, right? And then it can be very difficult for them to get an erection back right away or even have another orgasm right away. Whereas with women, they can have multiple orgasms.
and then don't have the same refractory period that men do. So those are some of the sex differences. All right, so here's the video. I'm going to show this, and then we will end part one of chapter 10 tonight.
In the straight-laced 1950s, conducting research into sex presented some daunting challenges. For example, when Masters and Johnson began their work at Washington University in 1957, they wondered where they would find volunteers for the project. But to their surprise, they discovered that many ordinary people were willing to serve as subjects.
Curiously enough... Getting research subjects was easy. If you waited, you had to wade through the fraternities that sent their pledges in to be interviewed, and, you know, the poor dears were stammering, stuttering, and so on because they didn't come of their own free will.
And that was very easy to screen out, of course, and kind of fun in a way. So, Masters and Johnson embarked on the first major scientific study of sexual response ever conducted. Masters and Johnson have since destroyed the films they made of their early studies, but later researchers repeated their work, including films such as these. Over a 10-year period, Masters and Johnson observed and took measurements from 700 male and female subjects masturbating or having intercourse in the laboratory. They once estimated they had studied over 10,000 organs.
orgasms. They were the first to film a woman's orgasm internally using an artificial penis of clear plastic that contained a light and camera. In the late 50s and early 60s, this kind of research would have scandalized many if they had known it was going on. I couldn't think of any way that I could prepare the public for the shock value of finding out that such research existed. They were superbly courageous of doing something against the stream of society and to delve into some kind of study about...
a taboo topic, something between the waist and the knees. And not only did they study it, they observed it. So from the beginning, Masters knew it was imperative that the research be conducted in relative secrecy.
And he was very careful to shield the project from outside criticism by lining up support from the university and from local clergy. In 1964, Masters moved the project off campus establishing the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation. It was financed by a few private donations and small foundation grants.
Masters himself took no pay from the foundation or the medical school, supporting himself solely from his gynecological practice. Masters and Johnson attempted to report their findings to the medical community, but the most prestigious journals rejected their research papers. By 1966, though, after 12 years of work, Masters and Johnson were ready to publish their research in book form.
At the time, America's attitudes about sex were becoming more liberal, but little new information had become public. In the mid-1960s, we knew more about how to get a man to the moon and back than we knew about what was happening inside the vagina of a sexually stimulated woman. Even in the mid-1960s, some people thought anything related to sex was pornographic. Masters and Johnson knew that, so when they brought out their book, Human Sexual Response, they did everything they could to control the potential for sensationalism.
Does it concern you that thrill-seekers, people of that sort, will make it a point to try to get a copy of your study? No, I don't really think so. If they are looking for pornography or that type of material, they're going to be disappointed.
Because I can assure you that every effort was made to remove this type of material from the text. Masters and Johnson wrote the book as a medical textbook in deliberately dense scientific language. They chose a conservative Boston publisher, Little Brown, and held briefings for small groups of science writers in a Boston hotel suite just before publication. We weren't marketing.
We just didn't want the books burned. We just didn't want them to be ignored for what they were or misunderstood. The book was a sensation. Little Brown released 15,000 copies, and they sold out in one day. How has the demand been running?
Wonderful. Beyond our fondest expectations. I noticed you put it in the window, so you have no...
It's a hot property. I want to sell it. Human Sexual Response went on to sell over 250,000 copies in just the first year. It held firm on the bestseller list for six months. Do people apologize for ordering it or try to pass themselves off as students or anything?
On the contrary, I mean this is an enlightened age and people are interested in sex. Compared to the 1950s, it was an enlightened age, as America's sexual mores were changing. If the Masters and Johnson book had arrived in 55 or 1960, it would have been blasted.
It arrived at almost the perfect time. It arrived at a time in which people were throwing off a lot of the taboos and repression related to their own sexuality. In Human Sexual Response, Masters and Johnson identified four phases of orgasm and detailed the physiological responses in each. Some of their findings overturned popular misconceptions, particularly in regard to female sexuality. The book publicized the ability of many women to have multiple orgasms, and it showed that physiologically, a woman's orgasm was the same, no matter what the stimulation.
This overturned Sigmund Freud's notion that there were vaginal orgasms from intercourse, which were proper and mature, and clitoral orgasms, which were neurotic and immature. And this notion that there were two kinds of orgasms and one was superior psychologically, emotionally to the other, was very much prevalent in the culture at the time. But Masters and Johnson's work, what they said essentially is that an orgasm is an orgasm, however achieved.
What it did is it gave women a sense of both entitlement and a sense of inclination to pursue it, so that women became much more eager. to achieve and experience orgasm. Human sexual response became a bestseller, but not everyone was thrilled with an explicit textbook about sex. The book was published on a Monday and by Friday the mail began coming in in sacks. I mean that literally.
We had to employ three secretaries on a part-time basis to answer the mail. And about 80% of the mail was dropped dead. Previously, Dr. Masters had received numerous offers. So we're going to end that there.
All right. So we are, we will pick up next time with some sex differences and continue on this discussion. Does anyone have any questions about what we've talked about so far this evening?
All right. Go ahead and stop the recording.