the stunts and Concepts in this video were performed by Professionals in a controlled educational setting please remember that any attempts to psychoanalyze your friends and family based on this content should be approached with caution the makers of this video are not responsible for any existential crisis misplaced diagnosis or self-reflection spirals that may occur your discretion in a semi-functional frontal Lo are advised enjoy what's up internet and welcome back my name is Tim stadman and this is G psyched with me Tim stman sup you guys ready for another unit review well if you are good news I've got a pretty solid one lined up for you right here today we're tackling unit three of AP Psychology development and learning which is going to be all about how we grow and learn throughout our lives so now it would be a pretty good time to take those review guides out and get that frontal lob jump started because the learning is about to commence [Music] so we're going to start our review with developmental psychology which is going to look at the many changes we experience as we grow physically mentally and even socially so from the early days of being curious babies through all the twists and turns of growing up and even into the stages of old age developmental psychology helps us understand the full journey of human growth so first up we've got some key themes in development Al psychology that we need to know about these themes give us insights into the stages and aspects of human development first up we have nature vers nurture you might remember this one from our biological basis unit it looks at how our genetics and the environment work together to shape who we are so are we born with certain traits or do we develop them as a result of our environment as we grow older next up we have stability versus change this theme explores which parts of our personality stay the same over time and which ones well change when discussing things like our personality and temperament are we the same person at age five and age 50 or do those behaviors change over time will an angry baby be an angry adult or do they have the chance to loosen up as they get older and our final major theme is continuity versus discontinuity this theme looks at whether development is a smooth gradual process or if we grow in distinct stages so do we develop in a steady continuous path or do we jump around from one stage to the next now understanding these themes gives us a solid foundation for exploring the theories and research we're going to see in the developmental psychology unit next up we're going to take a look at the two main research methods that developmental psychologists use longitudinal research follows the same group of people over a long period of time lasting anywhere from a couple of months up to several years for example researchers might follow a group of kids from kindergarten through high school to see how their cognitive and social skills develop this method gives a clear picture of individual development over time but it can be timec consuming expensive and can suffer from participant Dropout cross-sectional research on the other hand looks at different groups of people at various ages all at one point in time for example researchers might compare the social skills of a group of 5-year-olds 10 yearolds and 15y olds all at once and then compare the differences in behaviors this method is quicker and less costly than longitudinal studies and it allows data collection across multiple age groups at the same time however it only gives us a snapshot of different ages at a single moment so it doesn't necessarily show individual change over time which makes it hard to tell if differences are due to age or just other factors Additionally the findings may be influenced by something known as the cohort effect which means that differences observed between age groups could reflect the unique experiences and cultural context of each generation rather than true developmental differences this makes it hard to tell if differences are due to age or other factors these research methods have allowed us to understand a lot of the psychological Concepts we will be talking about in this review so about we take a closer look at the specific areas of research within developmental psychology starting with physical development so physical development is obviously a crucial part of human growth and psychologist track it because it gives us valuable insights into our health well-being and how we interact with the world physical development begins before we're born starting with prenatal development which lasts from conception up until birth during this stage a single fertilized egg cell divides over and over gradually forming the complex structures of the human body several factors can influence prenatal development and understanding these factors is key to ensuring Healthy Growth first we have teratogens which are harmful substances like drugs alcohol and certain medications that can cause significant birth effects and developmental issues if the fetus is exposed to them during pregnancy maternal illness is another Factor infections or chronic conditions in the mother can impact the developing fetus leading to premature birth low birth weight and various developmental delays hormonal factors also play a critical role hormonal balances can lead to similar developmental issues as maternal illnesses and finally environmental factors like exposure to toxins such as lead or even things like poor nutrition can further impact prenatal development physical development rapidly continues after birth as babies grow and a big part of this growth is the development of motor skills fine motor skills involve the coordination of small muscles like those in the hands and fingers these skills are essential for everyday tasks like picking up small objects writing and coloring and buttoning up clothes as children develop these skills they gain more Independence in performing daily activities gross motor skills involve larger muscle groups and movements like crawling walking and jumping these skills are crucial for mobility and play a major role in helping children explore their environment and engaging in physical activities developing both fine and gross motor skills is key for Independence confidence and learning to interact with the world in our early stages of life we rely on infant reflexes for survival specifically the rooting and sucking reflexes so the rooting reflex happens when you stroke a baby's cheek they turn their head toward the touch and open their mouth and then the sucking reflex involves the baby sucking on anything that touches the roof of their mouth both of these reflexes are vital for feeding allowing babies to stay well-nourished and healthy as babies grow their abilities rapidly start to expand one interesting way psychologist have studied physical development especially depth perception in infants is through something called the visual cff apparatus the visual Cliff experiment was designed to test an infant's depth perception specifically their ability to perceive and avoid dropping off of a so-called clip the apparatus is a glass covered platform with a checkered pattern creating the illusion of a clip one side has a shallow drop while the other side appears much deeper even though both sides are covered with glass and perfectly safe in The Experiment infants are placed on the shallow side of the visual clip while caregivers encourage them to crawl across the glass towards them researchers observe if the babies are willing to crawl over the so-called Cliff or if they hesitate and show signs of fear the results showed that most babies around 6 to 12 months old could perceive depth and were hesitant to crawl over the cliff indicating that depth perception is part of early physical development now an interesting fact about depth perception is that it has a critical period of development which means there's a specific time frame early in life when the visual system needs certain experiences to develop properly if this critical period is missed it can be challenging or even impossible to fully develop depth process perception later on in life and interestingly enough the idea of a critical period isn't just limited to things like dep perception either it also applies to other important skills such as language acquisition language development has its own critical period typically in early childhood during this time the brain is especially receptive to learning language if we aren't exposed to language during this critical period our ability to learn and use language effectively can be significantly impaired critical periods aren't unique to just humans either many nonhuman animals also experience periods for certain behaviors a great example of this is the concept of imprinting imprinting is a type of learning where a young animal fixates on the first object it encounters usually it's parent and follows it for safety and survival a classic example of imprinting is seen in little baby ducks shortly after hatching they instinctively follow the first moving object they see which is usually their mama duck which is an instinctual behavior that keeps the baby duck safe moving on to adolescence this stage of development is marked by sign ific physical and psychological changes with one of the most notable physical Milestones being puberty which is going to be a series of biological changes that lead to reproductive maturity so this period is also going to include things like grow spurts where teens experience rapid increases in height and weight during this awkward stage of puberty we start to see the development of primary sex characteristics which are just the body structures directly involved in sexual reproduction and we also see the emergence of secondary sex characteristics which aren't directly involved in reproduction another key milestone in adolescence is monarchy for females which is just the onset of menstration and sperm Archy for males which is going to be the beginning of sperm production these changes signal the body's Readiness for reproduction and are important markers of physical development during adolescence and as we move into adulthood the stage that spans most of our Lives physical development generally starts to level off however adulthood is also characterized by a gradual decline in several physical areas as we get old older and older during adulthood both men and women experience a gradual decline in reproductive ability for women this often occurs with menopause which is the end of menstrual cycles and reproductive capacity this typically starts happening in the late 40s to early 50s menopause comes with various physical and hormonal changes makes me very appreciative that I don't have to experience it as we get older and older adults may also notice a decline in Mobility flexibility reaction to time and visual and auditory Acuity while these changes can have an impact on daily functioning they're all just a normal part of getting old now let's shift our Focus to gender and sexual orientation which can be seen as an important aspect of our identity and development understanding these Concepts helps us appreciate the diversity of human experiences and behaviors all right so now to be honest I'm not entirely sure what to talk about here for topic 3.3 and here's why so on the college board's updated course and exam description it states that there are no required Essential Knowledge statements for this learning objective so I'm not exactly sure what we're supposed to talk about here but I can't just skip over it mainly because it would make the chapters in this video look all out of whack you know if we don't cover topic 3.3 the chapters in this video would go from topic 3.2 straight to topic 3.4 to be honest that would bother me enough to keep me up at night so we're going to talk about a few terms that I think are still very important and relevant for you to know first let's define gender gender refers to the roles behaviors activities and attributes that Society considers appropriate for males and females it's a social and cultural concept that can vary widely across different cultures and time periods in contrast sex refers to the biological differences between males and females things like chromosomes hormonal profiles and internal and external sex organs a gender schema is a cognitive framework that helps individuals organize and understand information related to gender it shapes how we see ourselves and others based on gender roles and expectations and finally gender role stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors that are considered appropriate for men and women these stereotypes can shape our attitudes and behaviors often reinforcing traditional roles and limiting individual expression all right so next up we're going to shift our Focus over to cognitive development and to do this we need to talk about my buddy Jean P so P was a pioneering psychologist known for his work on sh development he proposed a theory of cognitive development that examines how our thinking evolves over time so if you remember back in unit 2 we talked about schemas assimilation and accommodation all Concepts that PJ introduced now remember schemas are just the mental structures or Frameworks that help us organize and interpret information now according to PJ these are the mental blueprints we use to understand in the world around us assimilation happens when we take in new information and incorporate this information into our existing schemas while accommodation on the other hand is just when we adjust our existing schemas or create new ones in response to new information for example a child who has a schema for dog might assimilate that schema when they see a new dog breed but when they see a cat for the first time and learn it's different from a dog they will have to accommodate their schemas possibly creating a new one for cats so as we adjust and expand our schemas over time our cognitive abilities start to improve these improvements are reflected in p stages of cognitive development so pH developed these stages by conducting specific tests on children's of various ages and use their responses to come up with his stage Theory the first stage is going to be the sentury motor stage lasting from birth to about 2 years old during this time infants learn through their senses and actions which makes sense when you look at the name of the Stage IT references both sensory and motor skills sensory motor sensory and motor pretty easy to remember now a key Milestone of this stage is the development of object permanence which is just the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can't be seen for developing object permanence a baby might think a ball magically vanishes when it goes under a blanket but with object permanence a baby will understand that even though they can no longer see the ball it's still there this realization is a significant milestone in cognitive development showing that the baby is beginning to understand the world in a much more complex way next is a pre-operational stage which lasts from about 2 to 7 years old in this stage children start using mental symbols and engage in pretend play but their thinking remains intuitive and not yet logical while cognition has improved during this stage kids in the pre-operational stage still have some errors in their thought process one key issue in the stage is dealing with conservation problems and this is just the understanding that quantity Remains the Same despite changes in shape or appearance for example if I pour juice from a short wide cup into a tall thin one my daughter might think there's more juice in the tall glass just because it looks different all right so we got two glasses right and we got some juice yumy juice can Pi have that kind of juice they can have this kind of juice what flavor is it and it's free punch oh I'm going to trct it all right so we're going to put some in there and after this and after gole C can I try some of this of course you can all right all right I yeah a little bit is there more juice in this cup is there more juice in this cup or is there the same amount of juice only the same amount same amount of juice okay that's a good that's a good question or a good answer all right now we're going to take this juice and pour it into this cup all right now does this juice have or does this cup have more juice does this cup have more juice or do they look the same um this one has more juice and this one doesn't because this one's bigger and we can't F all the way up to the C it fell oh so this one has more juice now over this one good you want to take a SI cheers got to keep going got to keep going you okay I can not F that's good that's good all right all right well apparently she thought that the smaller glass still had more juice in it but Point Still Remains the Same next we have reversibility which just refers to the ability to understand that objects can change and return to their original form before a child develops reversability they might think that after smushing a ball of Play-Doh that it can't be brought back to its original size animism is another fun cognitive concept this is just when kids believe inanimate objects have feelings I had an example of animism pop up when I was running those pan tests on my kid check out the interaction she has with her little stuffy and Stuffy's just a stuffed animal by the way cool ice cream that does look like ice cream what flavor um mint mint it does look like mint chocolate chip you're right I put that right there for nap all right ready for the next one put panting that's a panting it is all right so yeah her feeding her stuffed animal some pancakes which was somehow ice cream only seconds earlier would be an example of a child demonstrating animism also I just uploaded the full PJ and test I ran on my daughter if you're interested in seeing how a 4-year-old would respond to some of these ping questions feel free to check it out the link to the video can be found in the video description below and with that out of the way a quick word from our test subject subscribe to my G Channel G shake by King man I couldn't top that if I tried so anyways our final principle of the pre-operational stage we have egocentrism which is just a child's inability to understand perspective other than their own thinking that others see feel and think exactly as they do this is the reason a toddler has no shame in standing directly in front of a TV blocking the view from everyone else these Concepts show how children's thinking evolves during this stage helping us understand the unique view of the world next up we have the concrete operation stage which is going to last from around ages 7 to 11 and we're going to see that kids in this stage are able to correct the cognitive issues from the pre-operational stage here children start to understand the world more logically but still struggle a bit with abstract thinking and finally we reach the formal operational stage this fourth and final stage starts in adolescence and continues into adulthood where individuals start thinking abstractly and hypothetically now while PJ's theory has received much praise in the scientific Community it does come with its fair share of criticisms with one notable critique being that PJ may have underestimated children's abilities at various stages specifically the century motor stage additionally he focused primarily on individual development paying less attention to Social and cultural influences on cognitive growth which brings us to Lev votsi another influential psychologist who focused on cognitive development so while PJ took a stage approach to cognitive development voty took Conant uity approach vosi emphasized the social and cultural context in which learning takes place he believed that cognitive development is largely a result of social interactions where children learn through guided participation with more knowledgeable people such as parents teachers and peers one of botsky's key ideas is the zone of proximal development or zpd for short so the zpd is the range of tasks that we can't quite do on our own but we're able to accomplish with a little bit of help so think of it as the sweet spot where learning occurs just beyond what we can do alone but within reach with some help this assistance provided by the more knowledgeable person is what botki called scaffolding through scaffolding children are gradually able to accomplish more complex tasks as they're Guided by those who are more experienced in those tasks your Calculus teacher showing you how to work with limits and solve derivatives is a great example of scaffolding and just a little side note don't come to me for calculus help solving derivatives way outside my zpd don't even think Sir Isaac Newton could help me with that one and that guy was United by the Queen of England in essence voty believe that a child's cognition develops gradually through the support of their environment and culture all right moving on now how about we talk about the changes our cognitive abilities go through as we age by taking a look at crystallized and fluid intelligence so crystallized intelligence refers to the Knowledge and Skills we accumulate over our lives like vocabulary and facts this type of intelligence tends to stable or even increase with age because it's built on our experiences and education now on the other hand fluid intelligence is the ability to reason quickly and think abstractly solving new problems without relying on our prior knowledge fluid intelligence tends to Peak in early adulthood and then gradually declines as we age which can affect our problem solving skills and processing speed now as we age some adults may experience cognitive disorders that significantly impact daily life one such disorder is dementia which is a broad category of brain diseases that cause long-term gradual decreases in the ability to think and remember which can interfere with daily functioning and Independence Alzheimer's disease which we discussed in our last unit review is the most common form of dementia we see all right so now that we've covered a good bit of cognitive development how about we go ahead and take a look at a crucial aspect of our cognition which is going to be our language so language is a shared system of communication that follows rules to convey meaning it can be expressed through sounds written characters or even gestures think about how we use words to represent objects actions or concepts these words themselves don't have inherent meanings we as a society just agree on what they represent all languages are made up of phones which are the smallest units of sound also morphemes which are just the smallest units of meaning phones are combined to form morphemes for example the word incoming has three morphemes a prefix a root word and a suffix each morphe has its own individual meaning and combining them creates new words and new meanings the meaning we derive from words and sentences is known as semantics grammar and syntax are the rules that govern how we combine words into meaningful sentences grammar includes the overall rules of a language while syntax refers specifically to how words are arranged within a sentence in the words of Britney Spears oops I Did It Again I messed up the script got lost in the lecture oh baby baby I forgot to talk about how babies learn language so again here we are in my room of Shame so how about we quickly go through these stages of language development so I can redeem myself so first up we have the queuing stage which starts from about 6 to 8 weeks old this is when babies make those adorably annoying goooo Gaga sounds which is going to be their first way of experimenting with Sounds by four to 6 months they move on to the Babbling stage where they start to combine vowels and consonants this is when you start to hear sounds like baa or da da filling the house around their first birthday they hit the onew stage at this stage a simple word such as milk or doggy can represent an entire thought simple but effective and then between 18 and 24 months toddlers are going to enter the telegraphic speech stage this is just where kids start to combine two or three words into basic phrases like want cookie or go park they skip the fluff and get straight to the point and after that their language skills really start to take off and they start forming sentences before your very eyes or I guess ears maybe all right cool there we go so now that we covered that we're going to head back to the other clearly less handsome more incompetent version of myself who will finish up the discussion of language for you byebye one interesting fact about language is that it's generative this just means that we can create an infinite number of sentences and ideas from a finite set of words and rules allowing us to communicate complex and novel thoughts share experiences and express emotions now as language starts to develop in children they may experience something called overgeneralization this happens when they apply grammatical rules too broadly for example a child might say run instead of ran or foots instead of feet they're applying regular grammar rules like adding e for the past tense to irregular verbs now that we've explored key aspects of language development let's shift our Focus to another crucial area of human growth social emotional development so understanding how our emotions and social interactions evolve from infancy through old age is key to seeing the full picture of human development to kick off our discussion on social emotional development let's take a look at Yuri broen Brenner's ecological systems theory this Theory gives us a framework for understanding how different environmental systems influence human development and to help us break down BR and Brenner's Theory how about we welcome back our good buddy Doug what's Su Doug you ready to talk about some broen Brer all right let's do it so bronen brener Theory consists of five environmental systems first we have the micro system which just includes the immediate environment Doug interacts with daily these are things like his family school and friends so this is where Doug's direct interactions happen shaping his behavior and develop next up is the meso system this level is all about how the different parts of Doug's micro system connect for example if Doug's parents regularly talk with his teachers that connection can have a huge impact on his success in school and behavior moving out further we have the exosystem this layer includes broader social systems that Doug doesn't interact with daily still influences him think about Doug's mom's workplace if she has a stressful day at work it might affect her mood at home which could then impact Doug then there's the macro system which includes the broader cultural and societal context this system covers things like cultural values laws and customs for example the education policies in Doug's country influence the quality of schooling he receives and finally we have the Chronos system which deals with the dimension of time this layer includes major life events and transitions that Doug goes through over time like moving to a new city or growing up during the covid-19 pandemic Bren Brenner's ecological systems theory is crucial because it shows us that Doug's development is shaped not just by his immediate surroundings by a complex web of interconnected environments understanding these layers helps us see the full picture of how various factors shape our lives so now that we've covered BR and Brier's Theory and how different layers of environment impacts development how about we focus on a specific aspect within the microsystem our parents so we're going to see how a caregiver's approach with their children can play a huge role in shaping their development now Doug doesn't really like talking about his parents so he's going to head out for now appreciate it Doug see you next time bud anyways research has identified a few different parenting Styles each with its own approach to discipline communication and nurturing these Styles can have a big impact on a child's emotional and Social Development so how about we go ahead and break them down a bit first up is the authoritarian style think of authoritarian parents as the drill sergeants of the parenting World they have high expectations and enforce strict rules expecting obedience without question while this can lead to well-b behaved kids it often results in children who may struggle with self-esteem and worry about making mistakes next we have the authoritative style which is often seen as the gold standard of parenting authoritative parents also have high expectations but they balance these with warmth and support they set clear rules but they're willing to listen and explain the reasoning behind them this approach tends to result in kids who are self-confident socially skilled and good at regulating their emotions then there's the permissive style which comes in two forms indulgent and indifferent indulgent parents are the cool parents they're highly responsive but not very demanding they rarely set rules and just sort of let their kids do just about anything and while this can foster creativity it often leads to issues with authority and self-discipline on the other hand indifferent parents are neither demanding nor responsive they provide minimal attention and support often because they're dealing with their own stresses or preoccupations this lack of involvement can lead kids to feel neglected and can affect their self-esteem and social skills speaking of how our parents influence us their style of parenting can also shape the development of our attachment Styles so attachment is all about the emotional bonds we form with our caregivers which can influence how we relate to others throughout our lives temperament refers to those innate traits that shape how we respond to the world including our emotions and activity levels our temperament plays a big role in how our attachment Styles develop one attachment style is secure attachment where children feel safe and confident that their caregivers will meet their needs such as feeding and comforting them kids with secure attachments are usually more resilient trusting and better able to form healthy relationships then we have insecure attachment which comes in three forms avoidant anxious and disorganized avoidant attachment is when children avoid close bonds and emotional connections they might seem indifferent to their caregivers and prefer to be on their own this usually happens when caregivers are consistently unavailable or unresponsive anxious attachment is characterized by clinginess and dependency these children often worry about their caregivers availability and can become very distressed when separated this style often develops when caregivers are inconsistent in their responses disorganized attachment is the most complex and involves a mix of behaviors children with disorganized attachment may act confused or even apprehensive around their caregivers often due to experiencing unpredictable or frightening caregiving understanding these attachment Styles gives us insight into how our early interactions with caregivers can shape our future relationships and emotional well-being and and speaking of how these bonds affect us let's dive into separation anxiety separation anxiety is a common and natural response in young children when they're separated from their primary caregivers it's usually triggered by the distress or anxiety they feel when they are away from their parents often leading to clinginess crying or even Tantrums this reaction is especially common in infants and toddlers as they start to understand object permanence and develop strong attachments to their caregivers separation anxiety highlights just how strong and essential the bond between a child and their caregiver is and this brings us to an important study on attachment that was conducted by psychologist Harry harlo in the 1950s and 60s in his famous experiment with Reese's monkeys harlo separated infant monkeys from their mothers and gave them two surrogate mothers one made of wire that provided food and nourishment and another made of soft cloth meant to provide Comfort the results were rather surprising as harlo found that the monkey spent significantly more time clinging to the cloth mother seeking comfort and security over the nourishment provided by the wire mother parlo even found that infant monkeys that were unable to form an attachment displayed severe emotional and social issues such as increased aggression fearfulness and difficulty interacting with other monkeys as they grew older Carlo's research shows us just how crucial early emotional bonds with caregivers are and as children grow their interactions with peers start to become an increasingly important part of their development in early childhood we see something called parall play emerge which is just when children play alongside each other without actually interacting or playing with one another it's a crucial First Step that helps kids start to understand social interactions and boundaries as they move into adolescence social dynamics take on new layers one interesting concept here is the imaginary audience where adolescents often feel like they're the center of everyone else's attention making them extremely self-conscious they might feel as if every action and detail of their appearance is being constant scrutinized by others which can lead to heightened self-awareness and sometimes anxiety yeah I think you youngans out there call this main character syndrome or something another key concept is the personal Fable which is the belief that adolescences experiences are unique and not understood by anyone else this sense of uniqueness can lead to risky Behavior as the Adolescent brain can feel Invincible or immune to harm social development continues into adulthood with culture playing a major role in shaping it one important idea here is the social clock this refers to the cultural norms and expectations for the timing of major life events such as finishing school starting a career getting married and having children these expectations vary widely across cultures and even subcultures as adults forming families or family-like relationships become essential these connections provide Mutual support and help us navigate the challenges of the Adult World our childhood attachment Styles can even affect how we form attachments as adults for instance someone with a secure attachment in childhood is more likely to build healthy trusting relationships in adulthood and on the flip side individuals with insecure attachment Styles May face challenges when it comes to forming and maintaining close relationships American child psychologist Eric Ericson developed a theory of psychosocial development that gives us insights into how social factors influence our growth psychosocial development refers to the shifts in how we interact with one another and understand ourselves over time Eric propos that we encounter specific psychosocial conflicts at different life stages these conflicts are challenges where we balance our personal needs with society's expectations and resolving these conflicts according to Ericson allows us to develop in a healthy way so how about we go ahead and take a look at Erikson's stage theory of development so in the first year of Life infants encounter the trust versus mistrust stage when their basic needs like food comfort and affection are consistently met they develop trust if not they may grow m trustful of the world around them between ages of 1 and three children face the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage this is where they begin asserting Independence successful experiences like potty training or picking out clothes lead to a sense of Independence while overly critical feedback can bring on shame and doubt from ages 3 to 6 children enter the conflict of initiative versus guilt they start initiating activities and interacting with other kids encouragement of this Behavior Fosters initiative and Leadership ship while criticism may lead to the child feeling shame and guilt between ages of 6 and 12 the focus is industry versus inferiority mastering new skills in school brings a sense of competence while repeated setbacks or negative feedback can create feelings of inferiority for adolescence age 12 to 18 the task is identity versus role confusion at this stage teens work on forming their personal identity and self-concept successfully doing so leads to a solid sense of identity while confusion can leave them uncertain about their future in young adulthood ages 18 to 40 so covering a pretty wide range the focus shifts to intimacy versus isolation forming close loving relationships is the goal here success brings deep lasting relationships while failure may result in loneliness from ages 40 to 65 adults encounter generativity versus stagnation they seek to contribute to society and nurturing the Next Generation success brings purpose and productivity while failure may cause feelings of stagnation in late Hood ages 65 and Beyond individuals reach integrity versus despair reflecting on their lives those who feel fulfilled experience Integrity while regrets and dissatisfaction can lead to despair Ericson stages provide a framework for understanding how social interactions and personal conflict shape us at every stage of life it emphasizes how resolving these conflicts can lead to balanced healthy development over our lifetime now that we've explored Ericson stages of psychosocial development let's shift our Focus to another factor that can influence development in childhood which is going to be something called aversive childhood experiences or Aces these are potentially traumatic events that occur during childhood including experiences like abuse neglect or household dysfunction Aces can have serious impacts on development and may shape how a child grows both physically and emotionally sociocultural factors such as socioeconomic status cultural norms and access to resources can influence how often Aces occur and how children cope with them for example communities with strong social support networks can often provide better protection and support against the impact of Aces the long-term effects of aces are significant research shows that people who experience multiple Aces face a higher risk of physical and mental health issues such as heart disease depression and substance abuse these early hardships can alter brain development affect stress responses and impact overall well-being but here's some hope resilience and Recovery are very much possible many individuals who go through es can still go on to lead healthy fulfilling lives protective factors like strong relationships with supportive adults access to Mental Health Services and positive Community environments can help buffer against the negative impacts of Aces and as we continue through life especially in adolescence we also work on forming our identity to understand this process let's take a look at James Marcia's identity statuses so James Marcia built on Ericson's work by identifying four identity statuses that adolescence and young adults go through as they explore and commit to different life paths first up is identity achievement this is reached when we've explored our options and made a firm commitment to our goals and values it gives us a strong sense of self and Direction someone who goes to college and decides to study medicine because that aligns with their values to help others would be going through identity achievement next up there's identity diffusion individuals in this status have an explored options or made any commitments they often feel aimless lacking a clear sense of identity this is someone who just doesn't really know what they want to do with their life then we've got identity foreclosure here people make commitments without exploring other possibilities often influenced by others expectations while they have Direction their identity may not fully reflect their personal desires this could be someone who becomes a lawyer because they wanted to prove to their ex-boyfriend that they are serious enough for his future as a lawyer so they decide to enroll at Harvard Law School and yes I am talking about L Woods from Legally Blond rate here great movie highly recommend Legally Blonde too not too bad either got some pretty funny moments in it but I definitely would not recommend the third installment refer to as uh legally blondes and finally we have identity moratorium this status involves active exploration without any commitment trying out different roles and ideas to see what fits best this would be like trying out a wide variety of classes in college to see what might interest you personal identity development can also be influenced by factors like racial and ethnic identity gender identity sexual orientation religious identity occupational identity and family roles all right so that just about does it for everything we need to know about for developmental psychology so how about now we shift our Focus to how we learn in the early 1900s Russian physiologist Ivan Pablo's work on the digestive process of dogs accidentally led him to the discovery of classical conditioning principle that would become foundational in learning theory soon after this discovery psychologist John B Watson built on pavo's findings famously conducting the little Albert experiment to demonstrate that emotional responses could also be conditioned so classical conditioning is just a simple learning process where a stimulus that naturally triggers a response known as the unconditioned stimulus or UCS is paired with a neutral stimulus the natural response to the unconditioned stimulus is called the unconditioned response or UCR and over time this neutral stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus leading to a similar response on its own this neutral stimulus now becomes the condition stimulus or Cs and the response to it is the conditioned response or CR during the acquisition phase the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus until it can trigger the response independently at this point we call it a conditioned response to test this process on little Albert Watson gave him a rat to play with which Albert seemed to enjoy but while Albert was playing and laughing with the rat WatchON suddenly smashed a metal pole with a hammer scaring the absolute Daylights out of little Albert and obviously causing him to cry and lucky you we are going to attempt this same experiment on my 2-year-old can't let my four-year-old have all the screen time so let's check it out Hammer Hammer Hammer where is my hammer that's not a hammer [Music] this will work as a metal pole I think maybe now we need a rat rat rat rat this guy will do now I just need a hammer or Hammer like object see to find one so I think we're just going to go with the wrench all right let's guys do deliver some Brute Force look at the cam there all right so you can't actually think I would have done that right at least not in front of the camera anyways after smashing a pole with a hammer around little Albert several times Albert started to cry from the sight of the Rat alone Watson didn't even have to bash the pole anymore the rat alone brought tears to poor little Albert's face in Watson's experiment the loud noise served as the unconditioned stimulus and Albert's crying was the unconditioned response by pairing the unconditioned stimulus of the loud noise with previously neutral stimulus of the Rat little Albert created an association between these two stimuli eventually the sight of the Rat alone became enough to make Albert cry this reaction is now the condition response to the rat which has become the condition stimulus now here's an easy way to remember this process conditioned essentially means learn so an unconditioned response resp happens naturally before learning while a conditioned response is learned through Association in classical conditioning the unconditioned stimulus is the natural instinctive trigger the neutral stimulus becomes the condition stimulus through Association leading to a conditioned response now once learning has occurred through classical conditioning a process called Extinction will start to happen if the condition stimulus is presented repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus so if Watson kept showing Albert the rat without the loud noise Albert would eventually stop crying at the sight of the Rat alone but if the condition stimulus is shown again after a break something called spontaneous recovery can happen if Watson showed Albert the rat again after some time Albert might start showing some discomfort all over again we also have two other key Concepts stimulus discrimination and generalization generalization occurs when an organism responds to stimuli similar to the original condition stimulus for example Albert started reacting with fear not only to the white rat to anything that res assembled it like a bunny a white coat or even This creepy Santa Claus mask discrimination on the other hand is when an organism learns to respond only to a specific stimulus and not to anything similar another important principle of classical conditioning is higher order conditioning or often called second order conditioning this happens when a new neutral stimulus is paired with an already established condition stimulus and eventually the new stimulus alone can trigger the conditioned response in Watson's experiment once little Albert Associated the loud noise with the rat Watson could potentially introduce a new neutral stimulus such as light so if Watson flashed a light just before showing a conditioned Albert the rat Albert could start associating the light with the rat which is associated with the loud noise and over time Albert would begin to cry just at the sight of the light even without the rat or the noise this process shows how complex our learned associations can become as new stimuli built upon previously established ones creating layers of conditioning another interesting aspect of classical conditioning is how we can actually change emotional responses through a process called counter conditioning counter conditioning involves replacing an unwanted response with a new more positive reaction by pairing the feared or disliked stimulus with something more enjoyable let's talk about a phobia of dogs for example if someone feels anxious around dogs they might experience fear just from seeing one through counter conditioning though they could gradually be exposed to dogs while doing activities they enjoy this can help replace the fear with positive feelings over time this technique is actually widely used in therapy to help people work through fears and anxieties building more positive associations to replace the negative ones all right so now we're going to take a look at the biological side of classical conditioning with one interesting example being taste aversion so taste aversion is a unique type of conditioning where an organism learns to avoid a food that has made them sick after just one exposure this type of one trial conditioning shows us the power of biological preparedness organisms are naturally inclined to form certain Association that increase their chances of survival for example if you eat a certain food and then end up feeling sick you'll likely develop a strong aversion to that food even if it's just a mere coincidence this kind of quick learning highlights how our biology influences how we form these types of conditioned responses and to wrap up our discussion on classical conditioning let's talk about habituation which is just when an organism gradually stops responding to a repeated stimulus this process can affect conditioning by making a stimulus less effective if it's repeated without consequences as the organism learns to tune it out all right so with classical conditioning out of the way how about we take a look at our second form of conditioning operant conditioning operant conditioning was heavily influenced by a psychologist Edward thorndike's law of effect thorndike's principle tells us that behaviors followed by favorable consequences are more likely to be repeated while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated kind of obvious this concept laid the groundwork for BF Skinner's research on operant conditioning Skinner theory of Operate conditioning explored how environmental consequences of rewards and punishments shape our behaviors reinforcement is crucial when we want to see a behavior repeated now reinforcement can be positive or negative and even though negative sounds bad remember that reinforcement is always a good thing I repeat reinforcement is always a good thing positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated for example you might agree to do the dishes because you're par will pay you $20 and on the other hand we have negative reinforcement which is going to involve removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage a good behavior let's say you and your classmates did exceptionally well in the last psychology test and as a result your teacher tells you not to worry about the next homework assignment hoping this encourages you and your fellow classmates to do well on the next test now let's shift gears and talk about punishment punishment is used to stop a behavior from continuing and can also be positive or negative positive punishment involves adding an un Pleasant stimulus in order to decrease a behavior for example let me share a little story when my Corgi was just a puppy he once dropped a huge dookie in the middle of my bed yeah I yelled him for that textbook example of positive punishment right he did something I didn't approve of and as result he was told he was a bad Dogo and given a look of disappointment pretty sure there was also positive punishment directed my way for not keeping my door shut though H definitely learned to shut my door after that one now let's move on to negative punishment this involves taking away something that you like in order to decrease a behavior that you're doing for instance if you have poor grades in school your parents might take away something you enjoy like your cell phone huh in fact I wish more of your parents would do just this would make my life a whole lot easier anyways the idea here is to stop you from engaging in that behavior again in the future now while psychologists generally agree that reinforcement is much more effective than punishment and teaching proper behavior there are times when punishment can be necessary and effective this is especially true when it's used immediately and consistently particularly to prevent dangerous behaviors just like in classical conditioning we also see generalization and discrimination in operate conditioning but with some minor differences in operate conditioning generalization occurs when we respond to similar stimuli in the same way we responded to the original stimulus that was reinforced or punished on the other hand discrimination is when we learn to differentiate between the original stimulus and similar stimuli responding only to the specific stimulus that was reinforced or punished all right now that we've covered the basics of reinforcement and Punishment how about we briefly talk about the different types of reinforcers used in operate conditioning primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy basic biological needs things like food water and shelter are considered primary reinforcers for example when I give my Corgi a treat for sitting down I'm using a primary reinforcer because that treat fulfills his biological need for food then we have secondary reinforcers also known as conditioned reinforcers these aren't as inherently valuable but they become reinforcing through their associations with the primary reinforcers a common example here is going to be money which can be exchanged for primary reinforcers such as food or shelter so these reinforcers can be effectively used to shape our behaviors shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations of a desired Behavior which just means that we reward small steps that gradually lead to the final behavior that we want to see if you're teaching a dog to roll over you might start by rewarding it for lying down then youd reward it again for turning on to its side and finally for completing the full role each small step is going to be reinforced until the entire behavior is achieved while shaping is highly effective there are some natural behaviors that can interfere with this conditioning process which brings us to the concept of instinctive drift instinctive drift occurs when an animal's innate behaviors interfere with conditioned response for example no matter how many times I try to rein force my Corgi to stop nipping at my ankles his hurting Instinct will most likely kick in when I start running around another interesting aspect of Operate conditioning is superstitious Behavior superstitious behavior develops when an individual mistakenly believes that a specific action is linked to a particular outcome even when there's no actual connection so let's say that every time you wear a certain shirt you do well on a test you might start wearing that shirt to every exam thinking it brings you good luck even though there's no real casual link there kind of like the whole correlation doesn't equal causation type thing we talked about in our science practices next we have learned helplessness learned helplessness occurs when an individual learns to feel helpless and passive when dealing with an unpleasant situation believing they have no control over the outcome this often happens after repeated exposure to uncontrollable events it can lead to a state where the individual no longer attempts to change or escape the situation even when opportunities for change are present understanding learned helpless helps us see how past experiences can shape our behavior and mindset sometimes leading to a sense of powerlessness and to bring an end to operate conditioning let's take a quick look at the differences between continuous and partial reinforcement continuous reinforcement is when a behavior is reinforced every time it occurs this method is great for learning new behaviors quickly but is much more prone to Extinction to address this we use partial reinforcement where a behavior is only reinforced some of the time within partial reinforcement we have different re enforcement schedules a fixed ratio schedule involves reinforcing a behavior after a set number of responses for example you might get extra credit every five times you participate in class in contrast a variable ratio schedule provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses think of how slot machines operate in the casino and you've got variable ratio schedules next we have a fixed interval schedule which reinforces the first response after a fixed amount of time has gone by this schedule is often referred to as the procrastinator schedule because it encourages bursts of activity right before each deadline with little effort in between imagine knowing you have a psych quiz every Friday chances are most of you won't start reviewing till Thursday or you know 5 minutes before class on Friday finally we have variable interval schedules which involve reinforcing the first response after varying time intervals this would be like having a random pop quiz in class since you don't know when the quizzes will be you are more inclined to keep up with what you need to know in order to do well on the quizzes according to psychologist out of all these reinforcement schedules the variable ratio schedule is the most resistant to Extinction and this is just because it creates a sense of unpredictability in the reinforcement process when individuals know that rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses they are more likely to persist in the behavior even if the rewards are not consistently provided this unpredictability keeps them engaged hoping for that next reinforcement one of the reasons that people might get a little too involved with gambling all right now let's move on to our final topic the social cognitive and neurological factors involved in our learning we're going to get started by talking about the social cognitive theory which was developed by psychologist Albert bandura this Theory highlights how we learn behaviors by observing and imitating others a process that is known as vicarious conditioning one of the most famous demonstrations of this theory was Bandera's Bobo do experiment in this study children watched an adult model act aggressively toward a bobo do which is just going to be a large inflatable clown toy with a solid center of gravity so like when you hit it comes right back up and you can hit it again bandora's hypothesis was rather straightforward children who observed aggressive behavior would more than likely imitate it the independent variable in this experiment was the behavior of the adult model and whether the child saw them act aggressively towards the Bobo dial or whether they saw them do some form of non-aggressive task like artwork or some other form of play meanwhile the dependent variable was the child's Behavior afterwards the results were quite revealing children who observed the aggressive model were significantly more likely to act aggressively towards the Bobo doll themselves this experiment highlights the concept of modeling where individuals learn by imitating the actions of others it also underscores the role of mere neurons which are just going to be brain cells that fire not only when we perform an action but also when we observe someone else performing the same action these neurons are crucial for imitation and empathy they support the idea that we can learn new behaviors simply by watching others furthermore this experiment laid the groundwork for Bandera's social cognitive theory according to bandura several cognitive tasks are essential for us to learn through observation first we need to pay attention to what the model is saying or doing then we must also store or remember the information we have to be able to imitate the behavior in the first place and finally we need to have the motivation to want to do the behavior all right cool now let's move on to another form of of cognitive learning which is going to be Insight learning theorized by Wolf Gang ker during his experiments with chimpanzees Insight learning is a type of cognitive learning where we suddenly understand or realize how to solve a problem it's pretty much like having that aha or light bulb moment this type of learning demonstrates that we can solve problems through various mental processes rather than just relying on trial and error another important concept is Laten learning lat in learning occurs without any obvious reinforcement or immediate demonstrations of the behavior psychologist Edward Tolman demonstrated this concept with an experiment involving rats he placed the rats in a maze without any reinforcement allowing them to explore it for several days later when he introduced a food reward the rats were able to navigate The Maze quickly and efficiently this showed that the rats had formed cognitive maps of the maze during their initial exploration even without a direct reward tolman's experiment concluded that rats could form mental representations of their Environ demonstrating late learning all right and that wraps up our unit 3 review on development and learning as always if you have any questions feel free to drop a comment and I'll do my best to help you out also if you're following along with the G psych review guide which you should be doing anyways be sure to test your knowledge of unit 3 by giving the practice multiple choice questions andq question and go and with that out of the way I will see you all next time B [Music]