hello there everyone and welcome to the mr sin channel today we are going to be reviewing unit 4 of ap psychology learning remember this video is part of a larger ultimate review packet in the ultimate review packet you'll find review videos for every unit in ap psychology study guides that go along with each of the videos practice quizzes practice ap tests and much more this video is going to be going fast so make sure you take out the study guide that goes along with the video you can find it again in the ultimate review packet as we go through the different concepts of unit 4 make sure to answer the questions in the study guide once you're done with this video you can go back and check your answers in the answer key which of course can be found in that ultimate review packet unit 4 starts off with an introduction to learning we can see that individuals learn in a variety of ways one of the simpler ways of learning is through association this is when an individual connects items or experiences together based on the order in which they were experienced individuals also learn with observational learning which is when an individual learns by observing other individuals for example if you're trying to improve your three-point shot in basketball you may watch others shoot to learn how to improve your own shots sometimes learning can be delayed this is known as latent learning this is when an individual is exposed to information but you do not show your learning until later when you have a need to show it people also learn through social interaction for example you may copy the body language of others without even thinking about it this is known as social learning there's also insight learning and trial and error learning insight learning is when there is a problem that needs to be solved and an individual will mentally work through the details to arrive at a solution while trial and error learning is when an individual tries a bunch of different solutions at random until one is successful lastly we can see that some people learn through accidental reinforcement and this can cause an individual to develop superstitious behavior which is when an individual links something with a positive effect even when they're not related today we can see that our understanding of learning has been shaped by a variety of different individuals such as john garcia who did research with association he believed that some associations are more readily available compared to others he is most known for his research into taste diversion which is when an individual has a negative association with food that they ate because it resulted in sickness or pain in the past albert bandura coined the term observational learning he conducted the famous bobo doll experiment which had children be exposed to a video of an adult plane with toy one of the videos had the adults playing not aggressively with the toys while the other video had the adult playing aggressively with the toy bandura found that the children who watched and were modeled aggression did show aggression when playing with the bobo doll edward tolman looked at latent learning he had rats compete in mazes and discovered that rats who had previously been exposed to certain mazes did better than rats who had not been exposed to the maze at all edward thorndike proposed trial and error learning he looked into different instances where individuals would try various solutions at random until one was successful ivan pavlov is known as the father of classical conditioning he is most known for his experiments with dogs and saliva skinner was one of the first people to describe operant conditioning he believed that behavior becomes more likely to occur when reinforced and less likely to occur when punished robert ruskorla focused on cognition and learning he showed how animals can be taught to expect the outcome of an event lastly john b watson looked at how learning influences behaviors and was one of the first people to state that behaviors are the result of learning so that's 4.1 and as you can see we're going fast i'm hitting just the major topics of each of the different sections of a unit if you need a more in-depth look at any of these different topics check out my individual topic review videos on youtube and while you're over there consider subscribing especially if you're finding value in these videos and two don't forget to check out that answer key in the ultimate review packet to make sure that you don't miss any of the concepts that you need to know one of the ways in which we learn is through classical conditioning this was created by ivan pavlov pavlov noticed that when you put food in front of a dog they would start to salivate even before the dog started eating the food he wanted to see if you could condition the dog to associate the food with other stimuli to do this he would place the food down for the dog and ring a bell eventually pavlov would take the food away and just have the dog hear the bell the result was the dog would start to salivate after hearing the sound of the bell anticipating the food that would come in pavlov's experiment we can see that the food was an unconditioned stimulant which is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response there's no teaching or learning involved we can also see that the dog drooling is an unconditioned response which is a response that does not need to be learned and occurs naturally in pavlov's experiment he also used a neutral stimuli which is a stimuli that elicits no response from a subject for pavlov it was about now in order for the dog to associate the bell with the food pavlov used a process known as acquisition this is a process of associating an ns with the ucf or pavlov is associating the food and the bell together once conditioning has occurred we can see we now have a conditioned stimulus and a conditioned response a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus to trigger a conditioned response a conditioned response is when a previously unconditioned response is occurring due to a conditioned stimulus in pavlov's experiment the conditioned stimulus was the bell and the conditioned response was the dog salivating to the sound of the belt we can see that when we have our neutral stimulus paired with our unconditioned stimulus acquisition will occur as time goes on the strength of the conditioned response intensifies but if we just have the conditioned stimulus by itself without the unconditioned stimulus extinction starts to occur and as more time passes the strength of the cr decreases remember extinction occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimuli if we go back to pavlov and his experiment this would happen if pavlov kept ringing the bell but never gave the dog food after the bell however if we pause for a period of time we can see spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response but if we have the cs alone again extinction will start to occur when trying to gain more insight into conditioning pavlov also discovered that sometimes the subject would associate similar stimuli to the conditioned stimuli and other times the subject could be conditioned to ignore certain stimuli this is known as stimulus generalization and discrimination stimulus generalization is when a subject has been conditioned and responds to other stimuli that are similar to the original conditioned stimulus while stimulus discrimination is when a subject has been conditioned and is able to recognize when other stimuli are different from the conditioned stimulus and not react lastly pavlov also looked at higher order conditioning or second order conditioning this is when a new neutral stimulus becomes the new condition stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus even being present for example in pavlo's experiment he could turn a light on before ringing the bell this would get the dog to associate the light with the bell and with the food so once the light gets turned on the dog would start to salivate even though the light and food were never paired together for section 3 of 4 we can see that we're changing gears and moving away from classical conditioning to talk about operant conditions operant conditioning has its roots with bf skinner who was a behaviorist skinner believed that individuals would be more likely to do certain behaviors when they received certain reinforcement and would be less likely when they are given certain punishments skinner based his ideas off of the work of edward l thorndike who conducted an experiment with cats trying to get out of a box this early operant conditioning was known as the law of effect which is when behaviors are followed by a favorable consequence they become more likely to occur when behaviors are followed by an unfavorable consequence they become less likely to occur one thing to remember is consequences can be both good and bad a consequence is a result or an effect of an action as we learn about operant conditioning remember one of the ways in which it is different from classical conditioning is that operant conditioning involves making an active decision while classical conditioning involves a response to a stimulus skinner first used the skinner box and a concept known as shaping to try and get rats to push a lever to do this skinner put a rat inside a skinner box which had a speaker a light and a lever at first the rat would get food pellets as the wrap moved closer to the lever but eventually the rat would only get a food pellet when the wrap pushed down on the lever this process is known as shaping and it's what helps reinforce desired behavior in skinner's experiment the lever acted as a discriminative stimulus which is a stimulus that elicits a response in this case a food pellet now when using operant conditioning we can use positive reinforcement negative reinforcement positive punishment and also negative punishment positive reinforcement is when a desirable stimulus is added which has the result of promoting or increasing a behavior an example of this would be if you get an a in your class and your parents give you 50 which motivates you to keep studying in the future negative reinforcement is when an undesirable stimulus is removed which has the result of promoting or increasing a desirable behavior an example of this reinforcement would be if you get an a in your class and instead of giving you a reward your parents decide to take away your chores at home which motivates you to keep working hard in school now positive punishment is when an unpleasant stimulus is added and the result is a decrease in an undesirable behavior for example if you get a bad grade in school and you have to give your parents money for each bad grade you have causing you to become more motivated to get better grades lastly a negative punishment is when a positive stimulus is removed and the result is a decrease in an undesirable behavior for example if you get a bad grade in school which results in your parents taking away your phone this causes you to become more motivated to get your grades up so that you can get your phone back it's going to be really important that you not only understand the difference between these reinforcements and punishments but also that you do not mix them up remember if a stimulus is being added and it increases the behavior it's a positive reinforcement if the added stimulus decreases the behavior it's a positive punishment if a stimulus is taken away and the behavior increases then it's a negative reinforcement and lastly if the stimulus is taken away and the behavior decreases it's a negative punishment right now when trying to give rewards we can see that different payout schedules will have different effects on individuals depending on the situation different reinforcement schedules will be used a fixed ratio schedule is when a reinforcement is given after a set amount of responses this is great at getting a high number of responses in a short amount of time an example of this schedule would be at a restaurant where they give you a free meal after five visits a fixed interval schedule is when a reinforcement is given after a set amount of time here we can see that more responses will occur right before the payout occurred for example if a company has an employee of the month program employees will often work harder the week before the reward is given out now a variable ratio schedule is when reinforcements are given out and what appears to be random amounts of responses this will often see a high amount of responses from an individual since the individual has no idea when the reward could come and may think it could be that next response a great example of this would be slot machines at a casino or even loot boxes in a video game lastly there is a variable interval schedule which gives reinforcements out after a random amount of time responses here are often consistent over a period of time since there's no incentive to increase the frequency of the responses an example of this would be if a company uses secret shoppers to see if their employees are doing what they're supposed to if the employee is on task they may get a gift card i also want to quickly touch on a concept known as the over justification effect this happens when extrinsic rewards replace intrinsic motivation this can cause the enjoyment of an activity to go down and if the extrinsic reward stops well it's most likely that the behavior will stop as well so we can see when using rewards and reward schedules it's important not to overdo them now remember extrinsic rewards or extrinsic motivation is when an individual's motivated to perform a desired behavior because of an external reward or to avoid an external punishment while intrinsic motivation is when an individual has a desire to do something for their own sake there is no external punishment or reward all right you made it to the last section of unit 4. here we will review different social and cognitive factors in learning when looking at how people learn we can see a variety of different factors that influence a person's ability to learn for example we can see the impact of different biological factors such as a person's genetic predisposition adaptive responses or neural mirroring there are also psychological factors that influence learning such as a person's previous experiences their generalizations or expectations and previous associations a person may have on the particular topic lastly we could also look at different social and cultural influences such as the person's culture their motivation family friends or peer group all these different factors influence a person's ability to learn different topics sometimes we can see that certain topics may be easier for us to learn compared to other for example people in animals have a biological predisposition to learn associations between different things that help them with survival this is known as preparedness we can see that different biological instincts can actually be quite powerful it's been observed that animals will often revert back to certain biological patterns even after learning has occurred this is known as instinctive drip individuals such as robert ruscola and alan wagner looked into learning and discovered the importance of cognition in learning to do this they conditioned rats with a tone and a shock the result of the experiment was that conditioning occurred in the first group of rats but not the second group this was because of how they set up the experiment if you need more information on this experiment go check out my unit 4 topic 4 video on youtube and if you're finding value in this video or any of the other videos on my channel consider subscribing that way you get notified when i post more ap psychology content we can also see insight into learning by looking at edward chase tallman with his rat study in his experiment rats had to complete mazes what was discovered was that as the rats continued to complete the mazes they developed a cognitive map which is a mental layout of the environment this allowed the rats to be able to increase their speed and efficiency at solving the maze another thing that was observed is the concept of latent learning which is learning that happens but it's not noticeable until there's a reason to demonstrate it now when looking at learning we can see that people learn through a variety of different ways two of the ways are social learning and observational learning social learning is when individuals learn from watching others interacting with other people or mimicking other people observational learning on the other hand is when a person learns information or skills from watching others receive different reinforcements or punishments and will expect a similar outcome to occur if they do the same action one thing that impacts a person's interest and ability to learn is an individual's locus of control which can be broken down into external locus of control which are different outside factors that impact a person and could determine their fate or outcome and internal locus of control which shows how a person could impact their own faith essentially external locus of control are outside forces that cannot be controlled by an individual and internal locus of control are things that are inside an individual's control if an individual has a high degree of external locus of control and little internal locus of control the individual may become frustrated and give up causing the individual to feel powerless in a situation lastly we can see that when people encounter different problems they may use different strategies to handle those problems and reach a desirable outcome problem-focused coping is when individuals try to eliminate or reduce stress by directly changing the stressor itself or changing how they interact with the stressor while emotion-focused coping is when individuals try to eliminate or reduce stress by ignoring or avoiding the stressor and focus on their own emotional needs that connect to the stressor and how it makes them feel or react and just like that another unit review video is done now you need to go back to the ultimate review packet and check your answers with the answer key in the packet also make sure you go and take the unit practice quiz to make sure you're understanding all the major concepts in unit 4 plus don't forget to check out all the other resources in the packet for the other units as well as always if you found value in this video consider subscribing and supporting the channel thank you so much for watching i'm mr sin and i will see you next time online [Music] you