Earth Science Guided Reading and Study Workbook

Chapter 1: Introduction to Earth Science

1.1 What Is Earth Science?

• Earth Science: study of Earth and its neighbors.
• Geology: Study of Earth, divided into physical and historical.
• Oceanography: Study of oceans, coastal processes, seafloor topography, marine life.
• Meteorology: Study of atmosphere, weather, and climate.
• Astronomy: Study of the universe.
• Nebular Hypothesis: Solar system bodies evolved from solar nebula.
• Earth's layers formed by gravity—denser elements sank, lighter ones rose.

1.2 A View of Earth

• Earth consists of four spheres: hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere, and biosphere.
• Geosphere divided into core, mantle, and crust.
• Plate Tectonics: Explains earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, continental movement.

1.3 Representing Earth’s Surface

• Latitude: Distance north/south of the equator.
• Longitude: Distance east/west of the prime meridian.
• Topographic Maps: Show elevation using contour lines.

1.4 Earth System Science

• Closed/Open Systems: Matter does/does not enter or leave.
• Earth systems powered by Sun (external processes) and Earth's interior (internal processes).
• Environmental Science: Human impact on Earth.
• Renewable/Nonrenewable Resources: Resources and environmental threats.

1.5 What Is Scientific Inquiry?

• Scientific Hypothesis: Possible explanation.
• Scientific Theory: Widely accepted, well-tested explanation.

Chapter 2: Minerals

2.1 Matter

• Elements: Cannot be broken into simpler substances.
• Atoms: Smallest particle of matter.
• Isotopes and Radioactive Decay.
• Compounds and Chemical Bonds: Ionic, covalent, metallic.

2.2 Minerals

• Minerals: Naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, definite chemical composition.
• Form through crystallization, precipitation, pressure/temperature changes, hydrothermal solutions.
• Silicates: Most common minerals.
• Carbonates, Oxides, Sulfates, Sulfides, Halides, Native Elements.

2.3 Properties of Minerals

• Color, streak, luster, crystal form, hardness (Mohs scale), cleavage, fracture, density.

Chapter 3: Rocks

3.1 The Rock Cycle

• Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic Rocks: Formed through Earth's processes.
• Rock Cycle: Continuous transformation among rock types.

3.2 Igneous Rocks

• Intrusive/Extrusive: Formed beneath surface/after eruption.
• Texture and Composition: Crystal size, mineral content.

3.3 Sedimentary Rocks

• Form from erosion, compaction, cementation.
• Clastic/Chemical Sedimentary Rocks.

3.4 Metamorphic Rocks

• Metamorphism: Changes due to temperature/pressure.
• Foliated/Nonfoliated Textures.

Chapter 4: Earth’s Resources

4.1 Energy and Mineral Resources

• Renewable/Nonrenewable Resources.
• Fossil fuels, tar sands, oil shales, ores, nonmetallic resources.

4.2 Alternate Energy Sources

• Solar, Nuclear, Wind, Hydroelectric, Geothermal, Tidal Power.

4.3 Water, Air, and Land Resources

• Importance of fresh water, pollution, atmospheric composition.
• Environmental impact of resource extraction.

4.4 Protecting Resources

• Conservation efforts, pollution control laws, resource management.

Chapter 5: Weathering, Soil, and Mass Movements

5.1 Weathering

• Mechanical/Chemical Weathering: Processes breaking down rock.

5.2 Soil

• Soil composition, formation, horizons, types, and erosion control.

5.3 Mass Movements

• Mass Movement: Gravity-driven transfer of rock/soil downslope.
• Types: rockfall, slide, slump, mudflow, earthflow, creep.

Chapter 6: Running Water and Groundwater

6.1 Running Water

• Water Cycle: Continuous movement of water on Earth.
• Streams and erosion.

6.2 The Work of Streams

• Erosion, transport methods (solution, suspension, bed load).

6.3 Water Beneath the Surface

• Groundwater, aquifers, springs, wells, caverns, karst topography.

Chapter 7: Glaciers, Deserts, and Wind

7.1 Glaciers

• Glacial Flow, erosion, depositional features (till, moraines).

7.2 Deserts

• Desert Erosion, ephemeral streams, alluvial fans.

7.3 Landscapes Shaped by Wind

• Wind Erosion: Deflation, abrasion. Loess, dune formation.

Chapter 8: Earthquakes and Earth’s Interior

8.1 What Is an Earthquake?

• Earthquakes: Energy release, focus, epicenter, seismic waves.

8.2 Measuring Earthquakes

• Seismic Waves: P waves, S waves, surface waves.

8.3 Earthquake Hazards

• Seismic Shaking, Tsunamis.

8.4 Earth’s Layered Structure

• Crust, Mantle, Core: Earth’s internal layers.

Chapter 9: Plate Tectonics

9.1 Continental Drift

• Wegener’s Hypothesis, Pangaea.

9.2 Sea-Floor Spreading

• Mid-Ocean Ridge, Subduction.

9.3 Theory of Plate Tectonics

• Plate Boundaries: Divergent, convergent, transform fault.

9.4 Mechanisms of Plate Motions

• Convection Currents, Slab-Pull, Ridge-Push.

Chapter 10: Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity

10.1 Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics

• Volcano Formation: Magma, divergent/convergent boundaries, hot spots.

10.2 The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions

• Eruption Types: Explosive, quiet, lava flows, pyroclastic materials.

10.3 Intrusive Igneous Activity

• Plutons, Batholiths, Sills, Dikes.

Chapter 11: Mountain Building

11.1 Forces in Earth's Crust

• Stress and Strain: Deformation of rocks.

11.2 Folds, Faults, and Mountains

• Folds and Faults: Types and formation processes.

11.3 Mountains and Plates

• Mountain Formation: Convergent boundaries, isostasy.

Chapter 12: Geologic Time

12.1 Discovering Earth’s History

• Uniformitarianism, Relative Dating.

12.2 Fossils: Evidence of Past Life

• Fossil Types, Fossil Record.

12.3 Dating With Radioactivity

• Radiometric Dating, Half-Life.

12.4 The Geologic Time Scale

• Eons, Eras, Periods, Epochs.

Chapter 13: Earth’s History

13.1 Precambrian Time

• Earth Formation, Early Life.

13.2 Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes

• Cambrian Explosion, Mass Extinction Events.

13.3 Mesozoic Era: Age of Reptiles

• Dinosaur Evolution, Cretaceous Extinction.

13.4 Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals

• Mammalian Dominance, Climate Changes.

Chapter 14: The Ocean Floor

14.1 The Vast World Ocean

• Oceanography, Ocean Basin Features.

14.2 Ocean Floor Features

• Continental Margins, Ocean Basin Floor.

14.3 Seafloor Sediments

• Sediment Types: Terrigenous, Biogenous, Hydrogenous.

14.4 Resources From the Seafloor

• Energy and Mineral Resources.

Chapter 15: Ocean Water and Ocean Life

15.1 The Composition of Seawater

• Salinity, Density, Ocean Layers.

15.2 The Diversity of Ocean Life

• Marine Zones, Plankton, Nekton, Benthos.

15.3 Oceanic Productivity

• Photosynthesis, Chemosynthesis, Trophic Levels.

Chapter 16: The Dynamic Ocean

16.1 Ocean Circulation

• Surface/Density Currents, Gyres.

16.2 Waves and Tides

• Wave Characteristics, Tidal Patterns.

16.3 Shoreline Processes and Features

• Erosion, Deposition, Coastal Structures.

Chapter 17: The Atmosphere: Structure and Temperature

17.1 Atmosphere Characteristics

• Layers of Atmosphere, Ozone Layer.

17.2 Heating the Atmosphere

• Heat Transfer: Conduction, Convection, Radiation.

17.3 Temperature Controls

• Influences on Temperature: Latitude, Land/Water Heating, Albedo.

Chapter 18: Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation

18.1 Water in the Atmosphere

• Humidity, Relative Humidity, Dew Point.

18.2 Cloud Formation

• Adiabatic Temperature Changes, Lifting Mechanisms.

18.3 Cloud Types and Precipitation

• Cloud Classifications, Precipitation Processes.

Chapter 19: Air Pressure and Wind

19.1 Understanding Air Pressure

• Barometers, Pressure Gradient, Coriolis Effect.

19.2 Pressure Centers and Winds

• Cyclones, Anticyclones, Global Wind Patterns.

19.3 Regional Wind Systems

• Local Winds, El Niño, La Niña.

Chapter 20: Weather Patterns and Severe Storms

20.1 Air Masses

• Types of Air Masses, Weather Influence.

20.2 Fronts

• Types of Fronts, Middle-Latitude Cyclones.

20.3 Severe Storms

• Thunderstorms, Tornadoes, Hurricanes.

Chapter 21: Climate

21.1 Factors That Affect Climate

• Latitude, Elevation, Topography, Water Bodies.

21.2 World Climates

• Köppen Classification, Climate Types.

21.3 Climate Changes

• Plate Tectonics, Solar Radiation, Greenhouse Effect.

Chapter 22: Origin of Modern Astronomy

22.1 Early Astronomy

• Geocentric/Heliocentric Models, Kepler’s Laws.

22.2 The Earth-Moon-Sun System

• Earth’s Motions, Lunar Phases, Eclipses.

22.3 Earth’s Moon

• Moon’s Surface, Origin of the Moon.

Chapter 23: Touring Our Solar System

23.1 The Solar System

• Terrestrial/Jovian Planets, Nebular Theory.

23.2 The Terrestrial Planets

• Characteristics of Mercury, Venus, Mars.

23.3 The Outer Planets (and Pluto)

• Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.

23.4 Minor Members of the Solar System

• Asteroids, Comets, Meteoroids.

Chapter 24: Studying the Sun

24.1 The Study of Light

• Electromagnetic Spectrum, Spectroscopy.

24.2 Tools for Studying Space

• Telescopes, Radio Telescopes, Space Telescopes.

24.3 The Sun

• Solar Structure, Sunspots, Solar Flares.

Chapter 25: Beyond Our Solar System

25.1 Properties of Stars

• Star Properties, H-R Diagram.

25.2 Stellar Evolution

• Life Cycle of Stars, Supernovae, Black Holes.

25.3 The Universe

• Galaxy Types, Hubble’s Law, Big Bang Theory.