Hello there Geographers and welcome back to the Mr. Sin channel. Today is the day Geographers. This is the moment you've been waiting for. This is the day that we summarize all seven units of AP Human Geography in one video.
Now this video is going to be going fast. The goal of this video isn't to teach you everything in the class. Instead it's to review a lot of the highlights.
Make sure you understand the main concepts of each unit. If you need more help with any of the specific content in this video, check out my topic review videos. They cover everything in this class in a lot more depth. The goal of this video is to help you review the day before you take that AP test or before a final exam.
That way all these concepts are fresh in your mind and you're ready to take the test. Also, if you've been watching my topic review videos throughout this entire school year, you know that I have a resource called the Ultimate Review Packet. This is a resource that covers every single unit of AP Human Geography. It comes with summary videos for the units, study guides, answer keys, practice quizzes, two full practice AP tests to help you get ready for that big day. And if you haven't checked it out yet I highly recommend checking it out.
It will definitely help you get an A in your class. and also a five on the national exam. For those of you who have gotten the Ultimate Review Packet and for those of you who have become YouTube members, I want to say thank you for the support. Because of you guys, I'm able to continue to make more resources.
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Alright Geographers, now comes the time to start this review. Hit that subscribe button, like this video, share the video, and let's start with Unit 1. The first unit starts off with maps, and we're looking here at thematic maps, reference maps, different map projections, and the important thing here is to make sure you can read maps and analyze them, be able to see different patterns at different scales, and to be able to interpret different types of data. When looking at the different types of map projections, remember that each map projection will struggle with the same pattern.
with distortion. We can see this happen in the shape, in the area, the distance, or the direction. For example, the Mercator map has distortion almost every single aspect of it except for direction.
That's why it was used for naval expedition. If we look at different continents and countries, we can see that the shape, the size, and the location is actually off. Another thing to remember when we're looking at maps is GIS, geographic information systems, which layer data on maps and allows us to see different spatial relationships.
Oftentimes, the information that we're looking at in our class and the patterns we're we're analyzing whether it be on our maps or our data is found through qualitative and quantitative research. Remember quantitative research often uses the census. The information is going to be in number form and it's not up for discussion. Qualitative normally is looking at people's attitudes, beliefs, or feelings. It's up for discussion and it does a great job of showing us information about what people are thinking.
Governments will use information from quantitative and qualitative to be able to decide where they should build a new school or where we need more grocery stores or different zoning laws. We could also see businesses use this information to determine the medium income which could help them better locate their store in a profitable neighborhood Even us individuals use this information to determine where we live. We'll look at the crime rates We'll look at what schools are available in the neighborhood and that informs us on our day-to-day lives The next part of the unit is all about spatial concepts here We want to understand how technology and advancements in communication have actually decreased distance decay how it's made us more Connected than ever before and how different patterns in space between different areas can create a unique sense of place or a unique cultural landscape. Another theme that we can see in the first unit that comes up throughout the whole course is environmental sustainability.
Here we see it first presented to us with environmental determinism and possibleism. Remember environmental determinism says that the environment sets restrictions on society and culture and that culture and society can't really do much about those. Certain locations will limit growth in society. While environmental possibleism looks at how society can shape and modify the environment to suit its needs. needs.
The last two concepts from this unit are important ones and they'll also come up throughout this entire class and it's scale and scale of analysis and this is where a lot of students get tripped up on and they get confused. Remember scale of analysis is looking at how data is organized, how it's being chunked together. Is it organized on a national scale of analysis where it's based around countries boundaries or is it looking at more of a local level?
Maybe we're looking at county while scale is just looking at how much of the Earth's surface we're viewing and remember with scale we have small scale maps and large scale maps and this is where a lot of students get confused. I A small scale map would be like a map of the world. We're seeing a lot of the Earth's surface, but we have very little details.
We're going to have to use more generalizations. However, a large scale map would be like a county map, where we're looking at a specific place on Earth. We can see a lot of details in the map.
However, we see less of the Earth's surface. Alright, we have one more thing for Unit 1, and that's the different types of regions. And you'll want to make sure you have a good understanding of these different types. We can see that we have functional or nodal regions, which are geographic areas that are organized around a node.
They have a center point, oftentimes based around different exo- economic activities. travel or communication. Think of an airport or a pizza store and their range in which they'll deliver to. We also have perceptual or vernacular regions. These are geographic regions that don't have a perfect definition and they only exist because of people's beliefs, their feelings or attitudes of a region.
Think of the Middle East. And lastly we have formal and uniform regions where we have geographic areas with common attributes, normally defined by different economic, social, political, or environmental characteristics. Think of a state's boundaries for this one.
So unit two is all about population and migration. This is a big unit for the class, and it connects to a lot of the other units. Definitely spend time reviewing this one. It starts off by looking at population distribution We're trying to understand where people living in the world and where are they not living? Remember people live all over the world and they live for different opportunities different economic social political also Environmental and areas that provide more opportunities will attract more people to those areas larger urban areas will offer more economic and social Opportunities for residents which will pull more migrants into the settlement while smaller rural settlements will offer less economic and so social opportunities.
However, they'll also have homes and buildings more dispersed, more land is readily available. And so we'll have a quieter lifestyle here. Now another concept that comes up when we're talking about distribution is population density. And remember, we have a couple different densities. We can look at our arithmetic density, which looks at the total amount of people divided by our total amount of land.
We also have our physiological density, which looks at the total population divided by the arable land, showing how many people we're going to have to feed. And lastly, we have our agricultural density, which shows us how many farms. farmers we have divided by our total amount of arable land. This lets us know how efficient we are and how much food are we producing per farmer.
Now the next part of this unit, it's gonna be important that you review some vocabulary. You wanna make sure you understand the different ways we could look at population. Whether we're talking about a country's CBR, a CDR, the NIR, their growth rate overall, if we're looking at our sex ratios, the doubling time, or also our dependency ratios.
All of these show different aspects of society that are gonna be important for you to understand when we're looking at population data. Also- Definitely definitely definitely make sure you review population pyramids and look at a couple different countries in different stages of the demographic transition model This will help you better understand how to interpret these charts Remember if we have a really large base, we're probably in more of an early stage in that demographic transition model However, on the other hand if we're looking at population pyramid that's more top-heavy We're probably in a later stage of the demographic transition model and we might be having some issues with our dependency ratio Which means we actually might be putting more burdens on the working class I just mentioned the demographic transition model and this is arguably one of the most important models in this entire class. Stage one of the demographic transition model is categorized by low growth.
Our CBR and CDR are both really high and they end up canceling each other out. When we move into stage two is when the Industrial Revolution or the Medical Revolution occurs. This allows our deaths to finally fall, but our births remain high, so we see a big population boom.
And it isn't until we start seeing more urbanization and social and economic opportunities occur that we see a transition into stage three. That's when our births slowly start to come to And our growth rate becomes more moderate. And then again we see a change happen when we go into stage four, when women finally get more opportunities in society, economic and social, and we start to see a ZPG, a zero population growth, as now our births and deaths match again and they're lower. However, we also have the debated fifth stage as well, and this is where our deaths actually rise above our births, and we start to see our population decrease. Understanding this model is key to understanding societies around the world.
And it not only helps us understand their economic and social opportunities, migration... patterns or urbanization, we can also see what's going on with death. And another model to quick make sure you review is the epidemiologic transition model.
This one follows the demographic transition model and it looks at causes of death in each of the stages. For the most part, it lines up pretty well with the demographic transition model. However, with stage five of the epidemiologic transition model, we do see some variance and there's a little bit of differences that occur.
Now, when looking at population pyramids or the demographic transition model, sometimes we can see external forces that change our population growth. For example, sometimes... will see pro-natalism used, where we see governments actually implement policies that will motivate citizens to have more kids and increase the population growth. Or some countries use anti-natalism, where they'll actually create policies that will restrict population growth and try to motivate people to have less kids. Now the last aspect of population growth that I want to make sure we address in this video before we go into migration is going to be Malthus and Neo-Malthusians.
Remember Malthus thought we'd have a Malthusian catastrophe. He believed that population would continue to grow exponentially and our food production would go only grow arithmetically and eventually we would hit a point where we would exceed our carrying capacity. Today we still have people who believe in those ideas and they'd be known as Neo-Malthusians. Neo-Malthusians believe Malthus was right, he was just too limited in his scope. Instead of just being food, we need to look at all of the world's resources.
And they believe that eventually we'll hit a time where our population will exceed the Earth's carrying capacity and then again we'll hit that catastrophe. Now the next part of this unit is all about migration and we have to focus on different push and- Pull factors. Remember, pull factors are things that make people want to come to an area, while push factors are things that make them leave an area.
People move for a variety of reasons, but we can see that most of the time it's because of political, economic, social, or environmental reasons, with the number one reason why people move being economics. When migration occurs, we can see that it's often either forced or voluntary migration. Forced migration happens due to events that put the migrant's life or family's life in jeopardy, causing them to migrate or risk their own safety.
Voluntary migration on the the other hand is where the migrant chooses to migrate on their own accord without fear of persecution or death. Remember there's a bunch of different types of migration that can occur and it's important for you to understand all the different vocab in this class. Also understand that when migration happens like Ravinstein noticed, we'll have a counter-migration. If people are moving from point A to point B, these places are now connected and they'll influence each other through a variety of ways.
For unit two, the big concepts to definitely review are gonna be the demographic transition model, population pyramids, and a lot of the vocab. Make sure you also understand how different migrations happen and the different types of migrations that can occur. How it can lead to diffusion, acculturation, assimilation, or even cultural resistance. Unit 3 is all about culture, hence the name of the entire unit. However, one of the things this unit seeks to do is to promote cultural relativism over ethnocentrism.
Cultural relativism is when we view a culture through their perspective. We do not hold the culture to our cultural standards. However, when we're talking about ethnocentrism, that's when we're going to view another culture and we're going to judge that culture based on our own social norms and cultural standards.
When talking about culture, we're looking at a group's shared practices. We're looking at their beliefs, their attitudes, their customs, their technologies, their food. And sometimes we can even observe the culture in the actual landscape.
It's known as the cultural landscape. The cultural landscape comprises the different land use patterns a society has. It's made up of their agricultural practices, different religious and linguistic characteristics, different architectural styles, which might range from a traditional style or postmodern style, or other ways culture has expressed itself in the physical features of the landscape or settlement.
Understanding culture is important. It allows us to understand how the different genders will be treated. What opportunities will there be for men and women in society? What types of food will be made? Also, what types of diets are we going to be experiencing?
And what goods and services will be offered? All of this can show insight into a society. We can also look at different cultural centripetal and centrifugal forces that push and pull society together.
Subtitles by the Amara.org community These forces can create a unique sense of place and a unique cultural identity. Now in the last unit we quickly reviewed migration, and we talked about how when people migrate, diffusion occurs. And a big part of this unit, besides culture, religion, and language, is diffusion. And there's different types of diffusion that we can see.
Diffusion can happen through relocation diffusion, which is when the hearth starts to shrink. We're not seeing new people take on the cultural trait. Instead, we have movement from one place to another.
We also have expansion diffusion, where the amount of people participating in a cultural trait... is growing. This can happen through either hierarchical diffusion, where diffusion happens through a system of structures moving oftentimes from the top down.
Contagious diffusion, which is diffusion that spreads in all directions, allowing everyone to have access to the cultural trait without any barriers preventing diffusion. Or we could also look at stimulus diffusion, which is when a cultural trait diffuses and it adapts to the different cultural traits of the area that it's diffusing to. Throughout history we could see how diffusion has occurred through colonialism and imperialism which led to the spread of English which eventually became a lingua franca or how religion has spread throughout the world as we saw Christianity and Islam diffuse globally as they became Universalizing religion today we can see diffusion happens through urbanization and globalization But mainly through the internet and advancements in transportation and communication We're more connected than ever before and that has led to space-time compression Which allows us to communicate with people all over the world and reduces the impact of distance to care All this diffusion can lead to cultural resistance to occur, as we might start to see people protest or go against different migrant communities, or new cultural traits.
At the same time, we can see acculturation, assimilation, syncretism, and multiculturalism, as we see cultures merge and adapt to one another and change. And sometimes we might see cultures isolate themselves, such as folk and indigenous cultures, which want to try and protect their unique cultural identity from a global culture. The next part of this unit that you definitely want to spend some time on, but you also want to make sure you don't get too bogged down in, is the religions. Understand the difference between universalizing religions and also ethnic religions.
Universalizing religions would be Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Sikhism. While ethnic religions would be Judaism and also Hinduism. When you're reviewing these religions, make sure you have an understanding of how they impact the cultural landscape.
Where was their hearth? How did they diffuse? What are their major beliefs? But don't get bogged down in all the dates and the time frames or all of the religious texts. Focus on how these impacted the different geographic landscapes in which they occupy.
Also don't forget to look at how ethnic... and universalizing religions diffuse. Universalizing religions want to fuse a lot more throughout the world and they want to convert more followers.
Where ethnic religions are seeking to protect their identity and are not trying to please everyone. The last concept that you want to review for unit 3 and again you want to make sure you don't get bogged down in all the little details here is la- Focus on language families around the world. Where did they originate? How did they diffuse?
How are different dialects spoken in different regions? How can be English sounds very different depending on where you are in the United States or where you are in the world? Focus on how language is diffused and how it impacts the cultural landscape. Unit 4 deals with a ton of different concepts and honestly I think this is one that's more difficult for students. We're changing our scale all the time.
At one point this unit we're talking about a very local scale with gerrymandering and voting districts and the next point we're talking about the United Nations and supranational organizations. So it's important to make sure that you're kind of following how scale changes throughout this unit. First thing you gotta understand is the difference between a nation and a state. A nation is not a state.
A nation is made up of a group of people who have a shared history, a shared cultural identity, and a history of self-determination. While state on the other hand is an entity that has a permanent population, a sovereign government, and is recognized by other states. And this distinction becomes important when we're trying to understand what a nation state is.
A nation state is a state that's made up of one nation. It's a homogeneous state. It's the opposite of a multinational state, which is a state that's made up of multiple nations, two or more, but they've agreed to live in peace, coexist together as one under one state. And not to keep piling on with the vocab, but we also have a multi-state nation. A multi-state nation is a nation that exists in multiple states.
For example, the Korean nation, which exists in North Korea and also South Korea. Plus, we also have to talk about a stateless nation, which is a nation that doesn't have an actual state. A great example of this would be the Kurdish nation. Other political organizations that you'll probably want to touch up on is going to be autonomous regions and also semi-autonomous regions. Now, another important concept that we have to have a good understanding of is self-determination.
When we're looking at nations, nations have self-determination, which is their right to be able to govern themselves without without any influence from external powers or other states. The reason why they do this is because they want to protect their cultural identity, and they don't want to be ruled by a different nation. Another concept that kind of comes back up in this unit is colonialism and imperialism, where we can see political boundaries are created, military conquest and diffusion happens, and we can also see power expressed through territoriality. We can see this expansion in political power illustrated in Shatterbelt regions, which are regions that are caught between two external fighting powers.
Today, we can also look at the impact of neocolonialism, the new form of controlling a country without actually controlling them. Here a country uses their economic or political influence to influence a country and control them without directly occupying or sending troops in. And since we're on the topic of political influence, we got to talk about political boundaries and their creation. We have relic boundaries that no longer exist, however, they still impact the cultural landscape.
Think of the Berlin Wall here or antecedent boundaries that are boundaries that have existed before human settlement. We also have subsequent boundaries which are based on different ethnic groups and cultures. cultures and that's the defining factor of the boundary. And consequent boundaries, which are boundaries that are actually used to divide different cultural groups and accommodate their differences.
We also can look at superimposed boundaries, which are created by a foreign state. A great example of a superimposed boundary is the majority of African countries. If we look at the scramble for Africa, we can see that European powers created most of those boundaries. Last boundary we could look at is geometric boundaries, which are cultural boundaries that are straight lines that go with the parallels of latitude.
We can also look at boundaries that exist in the sea. Here we can see the Law of the Sea, which is made up of a variety of different zones. We can see territorial waters, which stretch 12 nautical miles off the coastline of a country.
Then we have the contiguous zone, which extends another 24 miles off the coast. And then the exclusive economic zone, which extends 200 nautical miles off of the coastline. And lastly, anything past the EEZ is international waters. And to add a little bit more fun to our boundary review, we also have to talk about gerrymandering and voting districts.
Voting districts get redistricted every time the census is completed. Depending on where you live in the world, you might see your voting districts redistricted differently. For example, many European countries use a third party organization to try and redistrict boundaries in a fair manner. However, in the United States, many of the politicians are the ones that set the voting districts. And this leads to gerrymandering.
Gerrymandering is the redistricting of a voting district in order to create a district that's more favorable to your party. It gives you an edge over your competition. And some people talk about how the corrupt nature of this actually makes it so politicians are picking the voters instead of the voters picking the politicians. Alright, so we've talked about political power, we've talked about political boundaries, let's actually further our discussion about political power though and let's look at one state. Let's talk about unitary and federal states.
A unitary state is going to concentrate their power all at the federal or the national government. No power will be shared with the regional levels. On the other hand, a federal state is going to concentrate their power between the national government and regional governments.
Power here is shared and so it's distributed. We can see when look looking at states and how their power. or also how their geography is. we can see that some states will experience more centripetal forces, and others will experience more centrifugal forces.
Centrifugal forces are things that'll push a state apart. Things like terrorism, irredentism, or isolated cultural groups. On the other hand, centripetal forces will unite a country together, keeping a country stronger, and preventing things like devolution from occurring.
Devolution, remember, is the transfer of power from a national government down to a regional government. It's that process of transferring power. Last part of this unit deals with state sovereignty. Remember, state sovereignty is the state's right to govern itself. And we can see that in the recent decades that this is becoming challenged for a variety of reasons.
We can see devolution challenging, advancements in technology, interference now from foreign states through social media, or trying to interfere with elections of states. We also can see supranational organizations and how they impact a state's sovereignty. When states join supranational organizations such as the European Union, NATO, or the UN, they give up some of their sovereign control.
They have to follow the rules. follow the rules and restrictions for these new international organizations. However, by joining supernational organizations, states get the benefit to be able to solve complex global issues, participate in trade agreements, and also military alliances that not only makes their state better off, but the rest of the world's community.
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and also consider becoming a YouTube member. By supporting the YouTube channel, not only can I keep making more content like this, but you're also on your way to get an A in your class and a 5 on the national exam. Unit 5 starts out with extensive and intensive agricultural practices. Intensive agricultural practices are located near population centers and focus on maximizing agricultural production.
These practices require a lot of labor and capital. Examples of these agricultural practices would be plantation farming, which can be found in less developed countries. Another type of intensive agriculture is mixed crop and livestock.
This can be found in developed countries. Here we can see farmers produce crops and livestock. However, most of the crops are fed to the livestock. Next, we have market gardening, which is located in regions with longer growing seasons. Here we have fruits and vegetables that are picked and then processed, eventually being shipped across the country to the market.
Extensive agricultural practices, on the other hand, are located farther away from population centers. Here we need a lot more land, and most of the work is done by hand. Example.
Examples of extensive agricultural practices would be shifting cultivation, which is often found in developing countries with tropical regions. Here subsistence agriculture is at play. Remember, subsistence agriculture focuses on feeding your family or yourself or your community. The goal is not to make a profit. While commercial agriculture on the other hand is focused on generating a profit.
The goal here is to scale up your business and to be able to generate more profit. Oftentimes commercial agriculture is larger and is using more technology, where subsistence agriculture has smaller farm sizes. and is done more by hand. Another form of extensive agriculture is nomadic herding, which is found in dry, arid climates. Here, farmers are nomadic.
They move with their animals instead of practicing sedentary agriculture. Our last extensive example is ranching, which uses a lot of land for the cattle or sheep to graze. Here, it's located farther away from urban areas due to the amount of land needed in order for the animals to graze.
The next part of the unit looks at different settlement patterns and survey methods. And honestly, this part of the unit isn't too bad. We can see that we have clustered settlements that have of a higher population density.
Here, homes are packed together in close quarters. On the other hand, we also have dispersed settlements, which have a lower population density, with homes and buildings being spaced out. And lastly, we have linear settlement patterns. These settlements are located along a river, a road, or trains, different ways of being able to connect to a transportation route, and they're built in a line.
When looking at different survey methods, we could look at meets and bounds, which are used for short distances, and oftentimes are based off key geographic features in the area. We could also look at long lots which divide land up into narrow parcels that each have connections to a transportation system Whether it be a road or also a river and lastly we could look at a township and range which uses Longitude and latitude to create a grid like system across a geographic area We shift our focus over to different agricultural hearst such as the Fertile Crescent or the Indus Valley River We can not only see where different crops and animals originated from but we can also see how they diffuse historical events such as the Columbian Exchange led to the diffusion of of different agricultural practices and products around the world. All right, now the next part of this unit deals with agricultural revolutions.
And we can start with the first agricultural revolution, which was around the Neolithic revolution. Here we started to see the form of sedentary agriculture take off. However, it wasn't until the second agricultural revolution that happened with the industrial revolution that we really saw a transformation in our food production. This is when new technologies were introduced, like the seed drill, that allowed us to be able to increase our food output.
We were able to have a greater food surplus. This also allowed for the enclosure movement to happen. It changed migration patterns, ways of living, and we also started to see a new globalized economy.
This transformed how we produce food, and it led to a population boom. Eventually we get into the green revolution, where we started to see the introduction of GMOs, hybrid plants, new chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides. All of this again revolutionized our food production, and allowed us to have higher yielding crops.
Now these changes in agricultural production also led to some new practices such as monocropping. This is when farmers grow the same crop each year to increase the production. This allows farmers to become more productive and efficient with their production, however, it also can deplete nutrients in the land.
We could also start to see monoculture occur as well, which is when farmers grow one type of crop at a period of time. However, they'll switch that type of crop after each harvest. Another thing to remember when we're looking at changes in agriculture and also our production is new technology has allowed farmers to achieve an economy of scale. Farmers today are now able to scale up their business and actually produce crops at a cheaper rate when they're producing more quantity.
Thanks to advancements in technology, large corporate farms are able to produce a high amount of food at relatively low cost. This favors then large multinational corporations and agro businesses over small family farms that can't achieve the same output. One other concept that you should probably be familiar about is a value added specialty crop. These are crops that gain in value as the production For example, wheat being turned into flour is more expensive than buying wheat on its own. Or buying jam over just strawberries.
All of these changes in how we produce food, how we make it, and where we're selling it have started some pretty heated debates. Should we be using genetically modified food? What's the impact of all these chemical fertilizers?
How does it impact our natural environment, our health, and what about the workers who are working in the field? These debates have led to the rise of organic farming, which seeks to remove chemical fertilizers and non-sustainable practices from the production of food. production of food, local food movements which try to counter food deserts, free trade movements, and urban farming and community supported agriculture. All of these movements seek to counter some of the ethical and health and environmental concerns that we see in the modern agricultural system. We can also see in this unit how women play a role in society.
Women in agriculture traditionally in developing countries make up a larger percentage of subsistence farmers. These farmers are part of the informal economy and traditionally are paid lower wages, offered less opportunities in society and are also more likely to be victims of discrimination. We can see as countries develop, women gain more roles. However, we still see them primarily in agricultural fields.
However, now they're in an urban area. But eventually as development continues, women are offered more economic, social, and political opportunities in society, and we get closer to achieving equality. Now the bid-rent theory is the basis for a bunch of different concepts throughout api human geography. The bid-rent theory looks at the relationship between land prices and also also an urban area or a large market.
We can see that as we move farther away from an urban area, the price of land goes down. Land becomes more available because we have a lower population density. This allows for more extensive agricultural practices to occur.
And as we get closer to that urban area or that large market, we see the price of land go up. This means that we're going to start to see more skyscrapers, more highly densely populated areas with people clustered together, and we're also more likely to see intensive agricultural practices occur. And all of this brings us to our last concept and is arguably one of the most important models if not really the only model in this unit and it's von Thunin's model. Von Thunin's model looks at the spatial layout of society. At the center of his model we have the market.
This is where we're going to see the sale of goods that are produced. Going out from the market we go into our first ring which is our Darien horticulture. If we go out to the next ring we can see that we're in the forest and the reason why it's located here is because the wood is used not only to cook food but also keep home. Subtitles by the Amara.org community And so it needs to be able to be close to the market so it's accessible.
After that we get into grain and field crops, which can be easily transported and don't really perish. And even further out from there is livestock. Livestock's located the furthest because it needs the most amount of land for the production of the food.
And the livestock can simply walk themselves to the slaughterhouse. And anything past there would be the wilderness. Now Unit 6 starts out with site and situation factors. Remember, when we're talking about site factors, we're looking at unique things about a specific place.
Such as the climate, natural... natural resources or the absolute location, while situation factors deal with more connections between different places, things like rivers, roads, airports, or ports. Over time as communication and technology has advanced, we've seen more and more connections made between different settlements around the world.
Speaking of different settlements and cities, make sure you have a good understanding of these different settlements and cities. You'll want to understand where they're located, how they operate, and how they connect with one another. Now when talking about connectivity and settlements, we can see the impact of diffusion in world cities and how large settlements...
today in Iraq. Cultural trends are Diffuse through world cities and large urban areas and eventually spread throughout the city into surrounding settlement. And when we're looking at cities, we can also look at the distribution of cities.
And in doing so, we can look at the gravity model and also Kristaller central place theory. Remember, the gravity model predicts the likelihood of two different places interacting with each other. We can see that larger settlements are more likely to have people and places interact with them.
Next, we can look at Kristaller central place theory and again see themes that we saw in the gravity model. We can see that larger settlements or special Businesses will have a larger range meaning they'll pull people in from a farther distance We can also see when looking at the central place theory that does a great job illustrating urban hierarchy We can see where cities towns villages and hamlets lay in the spatial Association that we see across our state one more thing before we go on to the next concept Remember that the central place theory could also analyze the locations of goods and services Services that are more specialized will have a larger range and people will travel larger distances for them There are also they'll probably going to have a higher threshold, so they're going to need to be located in a highly densely populated area. This will allow the business to be able to make enough money to support the store. The next concept we have also looks at the size and the distribution of settlements in a state.
We can see that states that follow the primate city rule have their largest settlement as double the population of the second largest. On the other hand, we can see that states that follow the rank size rule will have their largest settlement with about half the population more than their second largest settlement, and the third a third, and the fourth a fourth. forth and so on. Here we have more large urban areas and economic development is more evenly dispersed. Alright buckle up geographers, the next part of this unit is the models.
And when we say models we got a lot of models so sit back and just focus on the main concepts. You've got this. We start with the Burgess Concentric Zone model which has cities growing outwards from the CBD in a series of rings.
Newer homes are built on the outside of the model with older homes near the center. The next model we have is the Hoyt Sector model which has a city developed in a series of wedges with the CBD. in the center of the city.
Here, transportation and industry go through the city. This model is based around different economic and environmental factors. Next, we have the Harris and Allman's Multiple Nuclei Model. This model still has a traditional CBD, however, we start to see that the city has multiple CBDs.
Each CBD or node of the city will attract certain people and jobs. The next model is our last model for more developed countries, and it's the Galactic Model, also known as the Perfori Model. Here, we start to see an expansion of the multi- multiple nuclei model. We can also start to see edge cities form on the outside of the city limits. Moving into LDCs, we can look at the Latin American city model, which consists of a spine that connects the CBD to a wealthy shopping district.
It also has a disamenity zone which consists of high poverty neighborhoods which may lack essential services and infrastructure. If we move over to Africa, we can look at the Sub-Saharan African city model, which consists of three different CBDs. We can also see informal settlements such as squatter settlements, located around the urban area.
Remember, squatter settlements and favelas are low-income neighborhoods that people are living in without a legal claim to the land. Oftentimes, there's higher crime rates here, more of an informal economy, and we also see less infrastructure. Lastly, we can look over at Asia to look at the Southeast Asian city model. Here we can see the model is based around a port with a government zone that overlooks the day-to-day trade. The next part of this unit brings back a familiar concept, and it's the bid-rent theory.
When we're looking at the density and gradient of different settlements. we can see that highly densely populated areas, which are near the CBD, oftentimes are going to build vertically. That's because there's not a lot of land available and land's expensive. As we start to move away from highly densely populated areas and we start to move into medium densely populated, we'll start to see more single-family homes or multi-family homes such as triplexes and duplexes. However, there won't be a lot of space between the property and a front backyard will be pretty limited.
Eventually when we get out into the suburbs or past the suburbs, we start to get into lowly densely populated areas. Now we see a large front yard and backyard, plenty of space between different buildings. And that actually brings us to another concept, which is infrastructure. You see, as our density gradient changes and as we move further away from that urban area, we start to see less and less public transportation and goods and services be provided. Urban areas that invest in infrastructure, public transportation, schools, and healthcare will attract residents back into the urban area and they can then create more sustainable cities.
This will counter urban sprawl. and can actually reduce some costs. Now if cities want to create a sustainable city, they can do a variety of things. We can see they could implement smart growth policies, urban growth boundaries, new urbanism, they could utilize green belts, all of this would help make sure that a city is sustainable.
And when we're talking about sustainability, remember we're talking about living in a way that we can meet our wants and needs today without compromising future generations to do the same. Remember though, whenever we change urban policy or even government policy for that matter, we will have some con. controversy. Some people fear that we'll We'll start to have more segregation, unequal economic development, or we'll lose historical neighborhoods which will reduce the amount of unique cultural landscapes and that sense of place that has been created for generations in some of our cities.
And unfortunately society has seen firsthand some of the disastrous consequences that can happen if urban policy or government policy is not done in a way that is going to benefit society. We could look at the implications of redlining which led to discriminatory practices in home loans for minority communities and further segregated our neighborhoods, or blockbusting and how it contributed to white flight, which again segregated our neighborhoods even more, causing unequal economic development based off race. The next part of this unit looks at another challenge that some cities are facing, and it's gentrification. On one hand, we can see gentrification is raising property values and increasing wealth in low-income neighborhoods that are traditionally near the CBD.
Wealthier communities are starting to move back into cities, particularly low-income areas, taking old warehouses and converting them into apartments. And while this might be increasing new economic opportunities and creating new jobs and businesses for these neighborhoods, it has the unintended consequence of also pushing out the residents that currently live there. A couple other things to remember for this unit is the different layers of government and how they can impact and actually create challenges for different cities.
We can see that we have a federal government, we have regional government, state governments, local governments, city governments, counties. All of them have different says and different ideas of what they think should be done with funding and also urban planning. All right geographers, last year... unit and a big theme of this unit is globalization.
Ever since the industrial revolution, we've seen drastic changes in how we produce our food, goods and services, changes to migration patterns, urbanization, and even our settlement. Now, in talking about an economy, remember we have a formal economy and an informal economy. Formal economies are jobs that are regulated or monitored by the government. The informal economy, on the other hand, is made up of jobs that are under the table. They're not monitored or regulated by the government.
Next, we can actually see how jobs are broken down into different economic... We have the primary sector, which is jobs and activities that revolve around natural resources. The secondary sector, which revolves around manufacturing and the production of items. And then we have the tertiary sector, which is characterized by service jobs.
And this sector can be broken down even further into the quaternary sector, which has jobs that are service-based but are dealing with the collecting and gathering of information. And we can also break this down into the quinary sector, which are jobs that are focused on the decision process. Think about a government official or a CEO.
Today we're starting to see changes in where jobs are being offered. Core countries are no longer offering as many jobs in the primary and secondary sector, and are offering more jobs in the tertiary sector. While semi-periphery countries and periphery countries are offering more jobs in the primary and secondary sector, but don't have as many jobs in the tertiary. This movement of production between the developed world and the developing can be seen when we're looking at the International Division of Labor. We can see that companies in core countries are taking advantage of of the cheap resources and cheaper labor in the developing world.
And this is allowing them to be able to make products at a cheaper rate. Moving jobs from your home country to another country is known as an offshoring. And we're starting to see this happen more and more in the modern day. Not only because of the cheaper resources and labor, but also because of these manufacturing zones that make it economically advantageous for multinational corporations to relocate production in developing countries. Less developed countries hope to motivate multinational corporations to invest in their countries.
They hope to benefit from things like the multiplier effect, which looks at an original investment made in a country and that ripple effect it has. This new way in which we're producing products and trading around the world has led companies to use things like post-fortis methods of production, just-in-time delivery, agglomeration, and growth polls. All of these different things have allowed companies to be able to increase their profit margins, and have also increased world trade and globalization.
Next, we can look at the impact of neoliberal policies, which seek to promote free trade agreements around the world. Things such as NAFTA, or the creation of the World Trade Organization, or the International Monetary Fund, all seek to facilitate world trade and a globalized economy. At the same time, though, remember we can see countries resist globalization and try to implement isolationist policies.
Countries that utilize tariffs, which are taxes on imports, try to motivate companies to move back to their country. At the end of the day, though, we can see that countries that trade end up being better off, and they see more goods and services be produced in their countries. We can see that countries that are more likely to trade with with one another are ones that have specific wants and needs that can be filled with another country. Or we could also look at countries with a comparative advantage in a specific good or service. By specializing in the production of that item, they can become more efficient, and then they can trade for other products.
This allows countries to be able to be better off and decrease their opportunity cost, and at the same time increase the amount of goods and services that their citizens have. Now on the screen right now we have a bunch of different gross indicators. These are different ways to measure a formal economy. Remember that GDP... ADP is like taking the temperature.
Of the economy. We're trying to see how things are going. The GNP is looking at the production of all the country's citizens. And the GNI is looking actually at the standard of living. These indicators help us understand what's going on with the formal economy of a country.
We also look at things like the gender inequality index or the human development index to better understand what's going on with the country's inequality between different genders. Or what's going on with the expected years of schooling, the life expectancy, or the standard of living. These metrics allow us to get a better idea of what's going on.
with social issues within a country. Another theme that we've seen in other units that comes back up again is women in the economy. We see that women are more likely to be in subsistence agriculture or in the informal economy.
They're more likely to get paid low wages, have less illegal protection, and also be more victims of discrimination and sexual assault. But we can also see programs in the developed world that seek to try and reduce this gap, offering things such as microloans, which seek to provide loans given by individuals within a society, not by a government organization. The next...
The next thing in this unit is a couple different theories and models. We can first start off by looking at Rostow's stages of economic growth. The first stage is the traditional society, where jobs are centered around subsistence agriculture.
The majority work here is in the primary sector. From there, we move into the second stage, which is the preconditions for takeoff. Society now starts to see demand from outside states for raw materials inside the state.
This creates more jobs in the secondary sector, but also still the majority of jobs in society are still in that primary sector. From there. From there we move into the third stage. Now we're starting to see urbanization occur at a faster rate and more and more job opportunities are starting to open up for citizens in the secondary sector.
Next we go into the drive to maturity stage where we start to see more specialization and global trade occur. The economy now also starts to become more specialized and we start to see the state become more independent from their global trade partners. Lastly we have the age of mass consumption. Society now has many jobs that are in the tertiary sector and society overall is more developed.
We also see starting to see society produce different products that are not just for the needs of citizens, but are instead for their wants as well. Lastly, if we look at Wallerstein's world system theory, we can see an economic imbalance in the world, an unequal economic development. We can see that core countries have been taking advantage of the less developed countries. Periphery and semi-periphery countries end up producing many of the products and the goods and services for the core countries. This leads to the dependency theory, where we can see that core countries disproportionately benefit from the less developed countries.
this trade as the majority now of the perforary countries economies are based around exporting their goods to the core countries instead of having those products for themselves this also can lead to a commodity dependence as we'll start to see developing countries entire economy be based around one commodity and if anything were to happen to the price of that commodity it would devastate the entire economy on the other hand though core countries if something goes south with the trade well they can find a different developing country to produce their products for this model shows us how difficult it is for developing countries to be able to get to the same economic level as core countries. And we'll have to continue to see how this balance continues to trade as we continue to see more countries move down the demographic transition model further along Rostow's stages of economic development. And as technology continues to diffuse and change our global community, we'll have to see what happens in the future. And just like that geographers, our time has come to an end. Hopefully this massive video helped you prepare for your AP test or your final exam.
If you do need more help make sure to check out my topic review videos, the Discord channel, or my Ultimate Review Packet. Thank you so much for watching this video, for subscribing, for liking the video, and sharing it to other students. I hope that you found value in this.
It's been an honor being able to teach you throughout this entire school year, and I wanted to wish you the best of luck on your final or your AP test. Make sure to look for more resources in the future on this channel, as I'll be doing live streams and other reviews to be able to help you as we get closer to test time. Until then though, I'm Mr. Sin, and you know the Drill Geographers. I'll see you next time. see you guys next time online.