Comprehensive Earth Systems Science Review

Earth Systems Science Spring Exam Review Day 1 1. Identify the formation found at point A and point B on the topographic map below. Possible landforms might include river, valley, hill, plain, lake. Point A - Mountain Peak / hill Poing B - a Depression / valley 2. Using the satellite images below, describe how the coast of Dubai has changed over time. Dubai has created artificial islands which can have an effect on coastal erosion and impact marine ecosystems 3. Complete the table for the tectonic plate boundaries. Type How do the plates move? Likely to form volcanoes? (Y or N) Likely to form trenches? (Y or N) Likely to form new ocean floor? (Y or N) Divergent 2 plates move apart Y N Y Convergent 2 plates colliding Y Y N Transform 2 plates sliding past each other N N N 4. What is leaching and how does it relate to weathering? Type of chemical weathering where soluble substances are dissolved in water. Leaching can break down rock and soil resulting in caves and sinkholes. 5. Explain how rivers create canyons and valleys over time. Use the concepts of water flow, erosion, deposition, and mass wasting in your answer. Running water weather and erodes mineral fragments from rock. The sediment is deposited when the river slows down. Draw a 3-4 frame drawing of the processes to form a canyon. Explain in your own words. 6. Explain how sand dunes form. What processes are involved? Wind transports and deposits sand in areas where there is little vegetation to hold the sand in place 7. How does the movement of a glacier impact the lithosphere? Glaciers transport large boulders that can scrape the Earth’s surface as they expand and contract 8. What does the word mitigate mean? Make less severe 9. What are three methods used to mitigate the use of too much water in farming? Drip irrigation, improve soil health, irrigation scheduling, crop selection, water harvesting 10. What is a way freshwater ecosystems are affected by each of the following? This is NOT a multiple choice question. 1. Mining - water depletion, pollution from waste, disrupts the water cycle 2. agriculture/farming - overuse from irrigation, fertilizer run off, livestock waste 3. Urban development/ urban sprawl - decreases recharge area for groundwater, increase the risk for flash floods, increases overall water usage 11. Salt water is more dense than freshwater. 12. What is a thermocline? Where are they found? Areas of rapid temperature change in ocean water. Found in mid latitude locations during the summer. Also in lakes between warm surface water and deeper cold water. 13. What is a halocline? Where are they found? Areas of rapid salinity changes. Salinity decreases from surface water to deeper ocean water. Where freshwater rivers empty into saltwater. Day 2 14. For each system, sketch a picture of what the system looks like. Assume the box is the container that holds the liquids. System 1 Hot Water Floats Cold Water Sinks System 2 Freshwater Floats Saltwater Sinks Yellow colored cold water is very slowly added to red colored hot water. Green salty water is slowly added to red clear fresh water 15. How do melting polar ice caps affect each of these? This is NOT a multiple choice question. 1. sea level - Melting fresh water increases sea levels flooding coastal areas 2. reflectivity of sunlight from the Earth’s surface - less ice means more sunlight reaches the Earth’s surface warming the ice and melting more 3. the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - methane is trapped in ice and permafrost. When these melt, methane is added to the atmosphere. 16. What is the Coriolis effect and how does it work? Caused by the Earth’s rotation. Winds and surface ocean currents are deflected away from the equator based on the Earth’s spin. The Earth rotates faster at the equator than the poles. 17. How does the Coriolis effect influence ocean currents? Currents flow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere 18. How does the Coriolis effect connect with the three-cell model (Hadley, Ferrell, and Polar) of climate? Coriolis Effect deflects winds causing warm air to rise and cold air to sink creating different weather patterns and climate regions 19. Explain how water density affects ocean circulation and the global conveyor belt. Cold dense water at the Poles sinks causing warmer surface water near the Equator to move north where it cools and sinks. 20. What does the word mechanism mean when related to climate? A mechanism is a process that causes a change in something. In the case of climate, a mechanism is a process that results in a change to the temperature, precipitation, or other climate feature. 21. What is albedo and how does it influence the temperature of the Earth? Albedo is the amount of light that is reflected from a surface. The more light is reflected from the earth, the less thermal energy the Earth absorbs. High albedo leads to less energy storage and lower temperatures. Low albedo results in more energy being absorbed and warming temperatures. 22. What is upwelling? Why is it important? Where does it happen? Upwelling occurs when winds blow warm surface water away. This allows colder, denser, and nutrient filled water to rise to the surface. It provides food and nutrients for ecosystems near the coasts. 23. What are positive feedback loops in the context of climate change? Describe an example of something that would contribute to a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback loop happens when the result of an event causes the same event to happen over again or to a greater extent. In climate change, an example of a positive feedback loop happens when methane escapes from melting glaciers, causing the Earth to warm, which then causes the glaciers to melt more and release more methane. The cycle continues. 24. What are negative feedback loops in the context of climate change? Describe an example of something that would contribute to a negative feedback loop. Negative feedback loops cause a slow down in a system. In climate, a negative feedback example is water evaporating to form clouds that reflect sunlight, slowing warming temperatures. 25. Explain how the Earth’s atmosphere is able to retain heat due to the greenhouse effect. As visible light enters the earth's atmosphere, it is partially absorbed by the earth’s surface and then re-radiated back into the atmosphere in the form of infrared light, which we feel as heat. This infrared light, or longer wavelength light, cannot leave the atmosphere as easily as shorter wavelength visible light so it is essentially trapped within the atmosphere. 26. How do ozone molecules in our stratosphere form? Draw a diagram or list the chemical reaction below. 27. How is the ozone layer beneficial to the biosphere? The ozone layer protects the biosphere from damaging ultraviolet waves from the sun, particularly UV-C and some UV-B radiation. This keeps the UV from damaging organisms. 28. Which chemicals destroy ozone molecules? Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy ozone molecules. 29. Over a period of one hundred years, a rural area has a substantial increase in population. Buildings become more numerous, more densely packed together, and larger. Roads and parking lots replace meadows and fields. A stream is diverted into concrete gutters to control its flow. How would the climate of the area likely change as a result? This area would become an urban heat island. The temperature would likely increase, rainfall would decrease, and there would likely be more flooding when it did rain. 30. How does urbanization contribute to an increase in the frequency and severity of flooding? Urban areas have a larger amount of the soil covered in concrete or other impervious surfaces, so the rain can’t infiltrate the soil as effectively. Urbanization also increases the frequency of intense rainfall as there is a larger amount of dust particles that water vapor can condense around. 31. The image below shows the daily lowest temperatures of different counties in north Texas. Why might Dallas be 14 degrees warmer than Bowie, a rural area 90 miles away? (Hint: This is a specific effect) Dallas is warmer than Bowie due to the The Urban Heat Island effect. Dallas is covered in darker materials like concrete and asphalt, which absorb heat more than rural areas covered in vegetation. There is also more residual heat in the air from all the car engines and industrial burning of fossil fuels. Day 3 32. For the table below, describe how each of the four spheres is involved in the natural phenomena. If one or more are not involved, leave the space blank. Biosphere Hydrosphere Geosphere Atmosphere Rainwater washing away sediment on a hillside Sediment washed down the hillside contains organic plant and animal matter Rainwater weathers and erodes the sediment on the hillside as it flows down. Hillside sediment is weathered and eroded Barrier island formation Sediment carried by ocean currents contains organic matter and nutrients. Longshore ocean currents carry sediment that accumulates to form the barrier island. Sediment accumulates over time to raise above sea level and form the barrier island. Surface ocean currents are pushed by wind currents circulating in the atmosphere. Snow accumulating Frozen water precipitates on the ground as snow. Snow accumulates on rock and soil. Cycles of freezing and melting weather and erode rock. Snow forms in the atmosphere as water vapor cools into ice crystals. Volcanic eruptions Volcanic eruptions can destroy ecosystems, but they also introduce volcanic rock that can contribute to fertile soil. Volcanic eruptions release water vapor trapped within magma below earth’s surface. Lava and pyroclastic material from earth’s interior is released. Gas and dust spewed by the volcano circulates in the surrounding atmosphere. This may cause shifts in the climate. Formation of clouds Once water vapor condenses into liquid or solid form it becomes a cloud. Dust particles allow water to easily condense in the atmosphere. Water vapor enters the atmosphere, and once it is high enough in elevation, the air is cool enough for water to condense. Crops being pollinated as the wind carries pollen spores Plants rely on pollination for fertilization so they can reproduce. Air masses interact to produce wind strong enough to carry pollen. Animals breathe in oxygen and exhale CO2 Animals rely on oxygen to breathe, and plants rely on carbon dioxide to photosynthesize. Animals release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and consume oxygen. Algal blooms in a lake caused by runoff from a dairy farm The dairy cows’ waste and fertilizers to grow their feed contain nutrients like phosphates and nitrates necessary for algal growth. Algae blooms in the lake with the presence of additional nutrients from cow excrement and fertilizers. If the algal bloom is large enough, it may reduce passive gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the water and air. 33. How do oxygen isotopes in ice core samples change over time. What does a change in the oxygen isotopes indicate about past climate? The relative amount of oxygen isotopes (atoms with different number of neutrons) in ice cores changes as the temperature of the atmosphere changes. When temperatures are higher, there are more heavy oxygen molecules (O-18). When temperatures are lower, there are more light oxygen molecules (O-16). 34. In addition to ice cores, sediment core samples can be extracted from the bottom of a lake, sea, or ocean. What can these sediment core samples tell us about the Earth’s History? Sediment cores give us clues to the age of the Earth as well as climate patterns and temperatures in the past. They can give us information about biodiversity and water quality. 35. What are the 3 methods of Heat Transfer? Conduction - physical transfer of heat Convection - movement of a substance from place to place. Liquids or gasses Radiation - energy given off by an object ex. the sun 36. How does the transfer of heat between the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere influence weather? Heat from the sun warms the ocean water and causes it to evaporate. The water vapor rises, where it cools and condenses back into clouds 37. Describe the difference between El Nino and La Nina conditions. El Niño - warmer than usual ocean temperatures, leads to more rainfall in the southern part of the US La Nina - cooler than average ocean temperatures, leads to dryer conditions in the southern part of the US 38. What are the global impacts of El Nino on weather patterns? Can lead to extreme weather events, droughts, flood, heatwaves 39. Define Anthropogenic. Caused by human activity 40. Describe the 3 parts of Milankovitch Cycles 1. Eccentricity - shape of the Earth’s orbit changes in a 100,000 year cycle 2. Axial Tilt - The tilt of the Earth changes from 22.1o to 24.5o every 41,000 years 3. Precession - as the Earth rotates, it also wobbles slightly off center every 25,000 years 41. 2024 had the highest average ocean temperature ever recorded. How does warmer ocean water affect the following. 1. Sea Levels - Warm water expands causing sea levels to rise 2. Severity of Storms - warmer water can lead to more number and more severe hurricanes 3. Algal growth - warmer water increases algal growth. Increases in algae can increase salinity, raise CO2 levels, decrease O2 levels, and kill aquatic life. ________________ Vocabulary Unit 1: Formation and Composition of the Earth Atmosphere - All the gasses surrounding the earth. The atmosphere consists of multiple layers - the Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Thermosphere. Biosphere - All the organic life on earth, both flora (plants) and fauna (animals). Geosphere - All the rock on earth, ranging from rocks, soil, landforms, as well as earth’s crust, mantle, and core. Hydrosphere - All the water on earth, ranging from the water vapor in the atmosphere, lakes, rivers, wetlands, oceans, to frozen water in the form of snow or packed ice in glaciers. Comet - Small icy objects that orbit the sun. composed of ice, dust, and small pieces of rock. Comet tails appear when they are close enough to the sun that it can vaporize the ice. Solar winds push this water vapor away from the comet, giving it a ‘tail’. Meteor - The physical event of a meteorite burning up as it passes through earth’s atmosphere. Meteorite - If a meteor does not completely burn up while entering earth’s atmosphere, its remains are considered to be a meteorite. Asteroid - Large rocky objects orbiting the sun. Accretion / Accretionary Model - The accumulation of particles in outer space to form massive objects through gravitational force. Objects tend to make a disk of matter that gradually accumulates into a sphere. The accretionary model applies to smaller cosmic objects like planets and moons, to entire galaxies. Volcanic Outgassing - The process by which volcanoes release gasses trapped in Earth’s interior during volcanic eruptions. Ancient volcanoes are believed to be the source of our atmosphere and most water on earth. Planetesimal - A rocky object in space formed by collisions of other objects colliding and fusing due to the forces of gravity. This is a precursor to protoplanets and planets. Proto-Planet - A large rocky object orbiting a star, theorized to be developing into a planet as it has undergone internal melting due to impact accretion. Planet - A round, large object orbiting a star. Unit 2: Paleontology Sedimentation - The process of sediment being deposited after it has been weathered and eroded and accumulating at the bottom of a hill or under water. This sediment fuses together to form sedimentary rock layers. Fossilization - The process by which dead organisms are preserved within layers of rock. Organisms must first be buried under layers of sediment, they decay, and then their internal structures (usually skeleton or exoskeleton) are replaced by minerals. Stratigraphy - The study of rock layers and the chronological order of rock layers and archeological remains. This determines the relative age of the rock. Geologic Time Scale - A representation of earth’s chronological history as shown through the rock record. The geologic time scale is subdivided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Absolute Dating - Using radioactive isotopes to determine the age of a rock sample based on the specific half life of those elemental isotopes. The most common type of absolute dating is radiocarbon dating with carbon-14 for younger samples, and uranium for older samples. Relative Dating - The science of determining the order of past events in history without knowing the exact estimated age of a rock sample. Geologists use relative dating to determine the chronological order of rock layers based on laws and principles of geology. Faunal Succession - Older species will appear in lower rock layers, younger species will appear in upper rock layers. Principle of Superposition - Unless there is tectonic activity that disturbs it, sedimentary rock will always layer from oldest to youngest. The further down you go, the older the sedimentary rock. Index Fossils - Fossils of species that were only alive at a very specific time, used as a marker to identify specific geologic time periods when analyzing rock strata. Topographic Map - A detailed map of landforms and geological features based on their elevation above sea level, with contour lines and landmarks such as rivers or trails. This can show the viewer mountain peaks, hills, valleys, cliffs, depressions, etc. Contour Lines - Lines in topographic maps that connect points of equal elevation. Unit 3: Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonic Theory - Explains how major landforms such as ocean trenches and volcanoes are created through the interaction of tectonic plates floating on the Earth’s mantle. This theory also explains how earthquakes occur Convergent Boundary - Zone between two tectonic plates where they are moving towards one another. One plate will subduct beneath the other, recycling the crust back into the mantle. Divergent Boundary - Zone between two tectonic plates moving away from one another. This is where new crust forms as magma rises between the plates. These usually occur in the ocean. Transform Boundary - Zone between two plates moving in opposite directions that slide past one another. Crust is not destroyed nor created, but this movement produces earthquakes. Plate Boundary - Where two or more tectonic plates intersect. These boundaries are either divergent, convergent, or transform boundaries. Subduction - The process of one plate (usually oceanic as they are denser) sliding beneath another (usually continental as they are less dense) and being melted / recycled back into the mantle. Rift Valley - Where transform boundaries occur - two plates slide past one another producing earthquakes. Ocean Trench - A subduction zone along a convergent tectonic boundary, where oceanic crust is being pushed down into the mantle. Hot Spot - A stationary area of volcanic activity, also called a mantle plume, not located on a plate boundary. As the plate moves over the mantle plume, volcanoes form. This leaves behind a trail of volcanic islands and seamounts opposite of the direction that the plate is moving. This is how the Hawaiian islands formed. Lava - Molten rock that is above Earth’s surface, after a volcano has erupted it. Magma - Molten rock below Earth’s surface. Shield Volcano - Large, wide volcanoes with gently sloping slides. These volcanoes release thin, runny lava and are associated with gentle eruptions and minimal pyroclastic material. Cinder Cone Volcano - Small, narrow volcanoes created by pyroclastic materials that eject from a single vent. These can grow rapidly in a short period of time, and are associated with violent eruptions. Composite Volcano - Also called stratovolcanoes, these are tall volcanoes that have alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, with multiple vents. The volcanoes are associated with violent eruptions. Pyroclastic Material - Fragments of rock, ash, and gasses released by volcanoes as they erupt. Usually produced by more violent volcanic eruptions from composite or cinder cone volcanoes. Seismology - The study of earthquakes and how seismic waves produced by earthquakes travel along earth’s surface. This is how seismologists can determine when and where earthquakes occur, and send warnings to cities as to when the earthquake will hit. Tsunamis - A series of very large waves caused by displacement of ocean water, usually caused by an earthquake. Unit 4: Water Mass Wasting - Movement of rocks and sediment down the side of a cliff or hill due to gravity or weathering. Sediment Deposition - After sediment has been weathered and eroded, it settles at the bottom of a hill or mountain, mouth of a river, or the bottom of the ocean. Leaching - Where minerals within rocks are chemically weathered by the presence of dissolved CO2 in water (carbonic acid) Erosion - The transport of weathered rock and sediment to a different location than where it came from. Weathering - The breaking down of rocks into sediment by either physical or chemical means. Wind and water are major factors behind most weathering. Glaciation - The process of land being covered by a glacier, as snow and ice does not fully melt and accumulates either over mountainous regions or directly at sea level. Thermohaline Circulation - The global movement of ocean currents driven by density differences that transports heat and nutrients across the globe. Warmer surface currents travel towards the north pole and south pole, then cool down and sink below. These cold deep ocean currents travel back towards the equator. Coriolis Effect - Wind and ocean currents being deflected away from the earth’s equator due to the earth’s spin. This spinning creates multiple cells of wind circulation in the atmosphere (hadley, ferrel, polar). This also causes ocean surface currents & low pressure centers (tornadoes and hurricanes) to make a counterclockwise motion in the northern hemisphere, clockwise motion in the southern hemisphere. Groundwater - Water trapped below earth’s surface within aquifers, or the pores between rock and sediment. Freshwater - Water with a lower salt content, found in lakes, rivers, and wetlands. Saltwater - Water with a higher salt content, found in oceans and seas. Bathymetric Map - Topographic maps of the sea floor with contours for each rise and fall in elevation. This shows the size, shape, and location of seaforms. Salinity - The amount of salt dissolved in a body of water. Higher salinity, higher salt content present. Unit 5: Weather & Climate Weather - Atmospheric conditions for a certain location over a short period of time Climate - Atmospheric conditions for a certain location over an extended period of time, typically 30 years Solar Radiation - energy given off by the sun in the from of wavelength, consists of UV, Visible Light, and Infared Emitting - energy is released as waves or particles by an object Absorbing - radiation wavelengths are converted into heat Albedo - the reflectiveness of the Earth’s surface. Angle of Insolation - The angle that the sun's energy hits the Earth. The angle changes depending on the distance from the equator. Milankovitch Cycles - changes in the Earth’s patterns over time. Eccentricity Axial Tilt Precession Ozone Layer - Section of the Stratosphere that blocks the majority of the UV rays from the Earth. Ozone Molecules - Oxygen molecule that consists of 3 Oxygen atoms, O3. Jet Stream - band of strong winds in the high altitude that travel in an East-West direction. Hadley and Ferrel Cells - circulation patterns in the Atmosphere that distribute heat and moisture. Hadley Cells - 00 - 300 Ferrel Cells - 30o - 60o Greenhouse Gases - Gasses in the atmosphere that trap and hold heat radiated by the Earth. Water vapor, CO2, Methane are the main GH gasses Greenhouse Effect - Particles in the atmosphere that absorb heat radiated by the Earth that keep the Earth cool during the day and warm at night Hurricane / Typhoon - Low pressure rotating storms that form over warm ocean water in the late summer. Upwelling - Deep cold ocean water rising to the surface to replace warm surface water that has been pushed out to sea by winds blowing off shore Tornado - Rotating column of air associated with merging contrasting air masses. Typically part of a thunderstorm complex. Thunderstorm - warm air mass rises quickly causing water vapor to condense and form clouds. The energy released can produce heavy rain, strong winds, possible hail and tornadoes. Trade winds - East to West winds near the equator Thermal energy transfer - transfer of Energy from a warmer object to a cooler object. El-Niño Southern Oscillation (ESNO) - recurring pattern of Ocean temperature changes. From the warmer El Nino waters to the cooler La Nina water. Unit 6: Human Impact Climate Change - Long term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. Climate change is occurring globally, trending towards global warming. Carbon Cycle - The cycle of carbon being exchanged through the biosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere. Carbon normally cycles between storage in organisms, the oceans, and sediment, and carbon release into the atmosphere. Carbon Dioxide - CO₂ gas (One carbon bonded to two oxygen molecules) Major greenhouse gas Carbon Sequestration - Whenever carbon is stored in something other than the atmosphere. Carbon can be stored in organisms as plants photosynthesize, in the oceans through passive gas exchange. Most carbon is locked away within rock formations. Renewable Resource - A resource from earth (sunlight, wind, water) that can replenish once it has been consumed. Nonrenewable Resource - A resource from earth that is being consumed faster than the earth can naturally replenish it (fossil fuels). Wind Energy - Converting wind currents into electricity through the spinning of a wind turbine connected to an internal generator. Solar Energy - Radiant energy from sunlight that can be captured using photovoltaic cells in solar panels and converted into electricity. Fossil Fuels - Coal, oil, and natural gas that are produced from fossilized organisms. They contain large amounts of carbon that can be converted into heat or electricity through combustion. Harmful Algal Blooms - Excessive algal growth in bodies of water that harm aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Algal blooms may reduce available oxygen by blocking passive gas exchange with the air, and when algae dies the microbes that decompose them consume even more oxygen, essentially suffocating marine life. Ecosystem Rehabilitation - Restoring an ecosystem to a healthy level of biotic and abiotic factors. Ensuring that there is the right balance of organisms in the food chain to function properly, and that abiotic factors are sufficient and not polluted. Urbanization - The process of making an area more urban by building new roads, homes, work places, stores, etc. Urbanization usually occurs as an area grows in population as people move from neighboring rural communities, other states, or internationally. Other Relevant Words Phenomenon - An observable fact or event Kinetic Energy - The energy possessed by an object or molecule because of its motion Anthropogenic - Originating from human activity (anthro = human, genic = coming from) Stringent - To be very strict or to be very precise Enhance - To intensify or increase something Mitigation - An action that reduces the severity of something, to weaken something Negligible - Insignificant, something so small or unimportant it is not worth considering Altitude - The height of something compared to either ground level or sea level Isotopes - Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (elemental identity) but a different number of neutrons (heavier or lighter than the standard element) Displacement - People who must relocate because of climate factors or natural disasters Drought - A period of drier than normal conditions in an area - decreased or no precipitation compared to the average. Drought may last anywhere from a few days to a few years. Abiotic - Non-living factors present on earth, purely physical without organic life (sunlight, water, land) Ecosystem - A community of living organisms and the non-living (abiotic) environmental factors around that community.

Earth Systems Science Spring Exam Review

Day 1

1. Identify the formation found at point A and point B on the topographic map below. 
Possible landforms might include river, valley, hill, plain, lake. 
Point A - Mountain Peak / hill
Poing B - a Depression / valley

2. Using the satellite images below, describe how the coast of Dubai has changed over time. 
Dubai has created artificial islands which can have an effect on coastal erosion and impact marine ecosystems

3. Complete the table for the tectonic plate boundaries.

Type
	How do the plates move?
	Likely to form volcanoes?
(Y or N)
	Likely to form trenches?
(Y or N)
	Likely to form new ocean floor?
(Y or N)
	Divergent
	2 plates move apart
	Y
	N
	Y
	Convergent
	2 plates colliding
	Y
	Y
	N
	Transform
	2 plates sliding past each other
	N
	N
	N

4. What is leaching and how does it relate to weathering?
        Type of chemical weathering where soluble substances are dissolved in water.
        Leaching can break down rock and soil resulting in caves and sinkholes.

5. Explain how rivers create canyons and valleys over time. Use the concepts of water flow, erosion, deposition, and mass wasting in your answer. 
Running water weather and erodes mineral fragments from rock.  The sediment is deposited when the river slows down.

Draw a 3-4 frame drawing of the processes to form a canyon. Explain in your own words.

6. Explain how sand dunes form. What processes are involved?
Wind transports and deposits sand in areas where there is little vegetation to hold the sand in place

7. How does the movement of a glacier impact the lithosphere?
        Glaciers transport large boulders that can scrape the Earth’s surface as they expand and contract

8. What does the word mitigate mean? 
Make less severe

9. What are three methods used to mitigate the use of too much water in farming?
Drip irrigation, improve soil health, irrigation scheduling, crop selection, water harvesting

10. What is a way freshwater ecosystems are affected by each of the following? This is NOT a multiple choice question.

1. Mining - water depletion, pollution from waste, disrupts the water cycle

2. agriculture/farming - overuse from irrigation, fertilizer run off, livestock waste

3. Urban development/ urban sprawl - decreases recharge area for groundwater, increase the risk for flash floods, increases overall water usage

11. Salt water is more dense than freshwater.

12. What is a thermocline? Where are they found?
        Areas of rapid temperature change in ocean water. Found in mid latitude locations during the summer.  Also in lakes between warm surface water and deeper cold water.

13. What is a halocline? Where are they found?
        Areas of rapid salinity changes. Salinity decreases from surface water to deeper ocean water.  Where freshwater rivers empty into saltwater.

Day 2
14. For each system, sketch a picture of what the system looks like. Assume the box is the container that holds the liquids. 
System 1
	Hot Water Floats

Cold Water Sinks

System 2
	Freshwater Floats

Saltwater Sinks
	Yellow colored cold water is very slowly added to red colored hot water. 
	Green salty water is slowly added to red clear fresh water

15. How do melting polar ice caps affect each of these? This is NOT a multiple choice question. 
   1. sea level - Melting fresh water increases sea levels flooding coastal areas

2. reflectivity of sunlight from the Earth’s surface - less ice means more sunlight reaches the Earth’s surface warming the ice and melting more

3. the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere - methane is trapped in ice and permafrost.  When these melt, methane is added to the atmosphere.

16. What is the Coriolis effect and how does it work?
Caused by the Earth’s rotation. Winds and surface ocean currents are deflected away from the equator based on the Earth’s spin. The Earth rotates faster at the equator than the poles.

17. How does the Coriolis effect influence ocean currents?
Currents flow clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

18. How does the Coriolis effect connect with the three-cell model (Hadley, Ferrell, and Polar) of climate?
        Coriolis Effect deflects winds causing warm air to rise and cold air to sink creating different weather patterns and climate regions

19. Explain how water density affects ocean circulation and the global conveyor belt. Cold dense water at the Poles sinks causing warmer surface water near the Equator to move north where it cools and sinks.

20. What does the word mechanism mean when related to climate?
A mechanism is a process that causes a change in something. In the case of climate, a mechanism is a process that results in a change to the temperature, precipitation, or other climate feature.

21. What is albedo and how does it influence the temperature of the Earth?
Albedo is the amount of light that is reflected from a surface. The more light is reflected from the earth, the less thermal energy the Earth absorbs. High albedo leads to less energy storage and lower temperatures. Low albedo results in more energy being absorbed and warming temperatures.

22. What is upwelling? Why is it important? Where does it happen? 
Upwelling occurs when winds blow warm surface water away. This allows colder, denser, and nutrient filled water to rise to the surface. It provides food and nutrients for ecosystems near the coasts.

23. What are positive feedback loops in the context of climate change? Describe an example of something that would contribute to a positive feedback loop.
A positive feedback loop happens when the result of an event causes the same event to happen over again or to a greater extent. In climate change, an example of a positive feedback loop happens when methane escapes from melting glaciers, causing the Earth to warm, which then causes the glaciers to melt more and release more methane. The cycle continues.

24. What are negative feedback loops in the context of climate change? Describe an example of something that would contribute to a negative feedback loop.
Negative feedback loops cause a slow down in a system. In climate, a negative feedback example is water evaporating to form clouds that reflect sunlight, slowing warming temperatures.

25. Explain how the Earth’s atmosphere is able to retain heat due to the greenhouse effect.
        As visible light enters the earth's atmosphere, it is partially absorbed by the earth’s surface and then re-radiated back into the atmosphere in the form of infrared light, which we feel as heat. This infrared light, or longer wavelength light, cannot leave the atmosphere as easily as shorter wavelength visible light so it is essentially trapped within the atmosphere.

26. How do ozone molecules in our stratosphere form? Draw a diagram or list the chemical reaction below.

27. How is the ozone layer beneficial to the biosphere?
The ozone layer protects the biosphere from damaging ultraviolet waves from the sun, particularly UV-C and some UV-B radiation. This keeps the UV from damaging organisms.

28. Which chemicals destroy ozone molecules?

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) destroy ozone molecules.

29. Over a period of one hundred years, a rural area has a substantial increase in population. Buildings become more numerous, more densely packed together, and larger. Roads and parking lots replace meadows and fields. A stream is diverted into concrete gutters to control its flow. How would the climate of the area likely change as a result?

This area would become an urban heat island. The temperature would likely increase, rainfall would decrease, and there would likely be more flooding when it did rain.

30. How does urbanization contribute to an increase in the frequency and severity of flooding?
        Urban areas have a larger amount of the soil covered in concrete or other impervious surfaces, so the rain can’t infiltrate the soil as effectively. Urbanization also increases the frequency of intense rainfall as there is a larger amount of dust particles that water vapor can condense around.

31. The image below shows the daily lowest temperatures of different counties in north Texas. Why might Dallas be 14 degrees warmer than Bowie, a rural area 90 miles away? (Hint: This is a specific effect)

Dallas is warmer than Bowie due to the The Urban Heat Island effect. Dallas is covered in darker materials like concrete and asphalt, which absorb heat more than rural areas covered in vegetation. There is also more residual heat in the air from all the car engines and industrial burning of fossil fuels.

Day 3
32. For the table below, describe how each of the four spheres is involved in the natural phenomena. If one or more are not involved, leave the space blank.

Biosphere
	Hydrosphere
	Geosphere
	Atmosphere
	Rainwater washing away sediment on a hillside 
	Sediment washed down the hillside contains organic plant and animal matter
	Rainwater weathers and erodes the sediment on the hillside as it flows down.
	Hillside sediment is weathered and eroded

Barrier island formation
	Sediment carried by ocean currents contains organic matter and nutrients.

Longshore ocean currents carry sediment that accumulates to form the barrier island.
	Sediment accumulates over time to raise above sea level and form the barrier island.
	Surface ocean currents are pushed by wind currents circulating in the atmosphere.
	Snow accumulating

Frozen water precipitates on the ground as snow.
	Snow accumulates on rock and soil. Cycles of freezing and melting weather and erode rock.
	Snow forms in the atmosphere as water vapor cools into ice crystals.

Volcanic eruptions
	Volcanic eruptions can destroy ecosystems, but they also introduce volcanic rock that can contribute to fertile soil.
	Volcanic eruptions release water vapor trapped within magma below earth’s surface.
	Lava and pyroclastic material from earth’s interior is released.
	Gas and dust spewed by the volcano circulates in the surrounding atmosphere. This may cause shifts in the climate.

Formation of clouds

Once water vapor condenses into liquid or solid form it becomes a cloud.
	Dust particles allow water to easily condense in the atmosphere.
	Water vapor enters the atmosphere, and once it is high enough in elevation, the air is cool enough for water to condense.
	Crops being pollinated as the wind carries pollen spores
	Plants rely on pollination for fertilization so they can reproduce.

Air masses interact to produce wind strong enough to carry pollen.

Animals breathe in oxygen and exhale CO2
	Animals rely on oxygen to breathe, and plants rely on carbon dioxide to photosynthesize.

Animals release carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and consume oxygen.
	Algal blooms in a lake caused by runoff from a dairy farm
	The dairy cows’ waste and fertilizers to grow their feed contain nutrients like phosphates and nitrates necessary for algal growth.
	Algae blooms in the lake with the presence of additional nutrients from cow excrement and fertilizers.

If the algal bloom is large enough, it may reduce passive gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the water and air.

33. How do oxygen isotopes in ice core samples change over time.  What does a change in the oxygen isotopes indicate about past climate?
The relative amount of oxygen isotopes (atoms with different number of neutrons) in ice cores changes as the temperature of the atmosphere changes. When temperatures are higher, there are more heavy oxygen molecules (O-18). When temperatures are lower, there are more light oxygen molecules (O-16).

34. In addition to ice cores, sediment core samples can be extracted from the bottom of a lake, sea, or ocean.  What can these sediment core samples tell us about the Earth’s History?
Sediment cores give us clues to the age of the Earth as well as climate patterns and temperatures in the past. They can give us information about biodiversity and water quality.

35.  What are the 3 methods of Heat Transfer?
        Conduction - physical transfer of heat
        Convection - movement of a substance from place to place. Liquids or gasses
        Radiation - energy given off by an object ex. the sun

36. How does the transfer of heat between the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere influence weather?
Heat from the sun warms the ocean water and causes it to evaporate.  The water vapor rises, where it cools and condenses back into clouds

37. Describe the difference between El Nino and La Nina conditions.
        El Niño - warmer than usual ocean temperatures, leads to more rainfall in the southern part of the US
        La Nina - cooler than average ocean temperatures, leads to dryer conditions in the southern part of the US

38. What are the global impacts of El Nino on weather patterns?
Can lead to extreme weather events, droughts, flood, heatwaves

39. Define Anthropogenic.
Caused by human activity

40. Describe the 3 parts of Milankovitch Cycles
1.  Eccentricity - shape of the Earth’s orbit changes in a 100,000 year cycle

2. Axial Tilt - The tilt of the Earth changes from 22.1o to 24.5o every 41,000 years

3.  Precession - as the Earth rotates, it also wobbles slightly off center every 25,000 years

41. 2024 had the highest average ocean temperature ever recorded.  How does warmer ocean water affect the following.
1. Sea Levels - Warm water expands causing sea levels to rise

2. Severity of Storms - warmer water can lead to more number and more severe hurricanes

3.  Algal growth - warmer water increases algal growth.  Increases in algae can increase salinity, raise CO2 levels, decrease O2 levels, and kill aquatic life.

________________

Vocabulary

Unit 1: Formation and Composition of the Earth
Atmosphere - All the gasses surrounding the earth. The atmosphere consists of multiple layers - the Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, and Thermosphere.

Biosphere - All the organic life on earth, both flora (plants) and fauna (animals).

Geosphere - All the rock on earth, ranging from rocks, soil, landforms, as well as earth’s crust, mantle, and core.

Hydrosphere - All the water on earth, ranging from the water vapor in the atmosphere, lakes, rivers, wetlands, oceans, to frozen water in the form of snow or packed ice in glaciers.

Comet - Small icy objects that orbit the sun. composed of ice, dust, and small pieces of rock. Comet tails appear when they are close enough to the sun that it can vaporize the ice. Solar winds push this water vapor away from the comet, giving it a ‘tail’.

Meteor - The physical event of a meteorite burning up as it passes through earth’s atmosphere.

Meteorite - If a meteor does not completely burn up while entering earth’s atmosphere, its remains are considered to be a meteorite.

Asteroid - Large rocky objects orbiting the sun.

Accretion / Accretionary Model - The accumulation of particles in outer space to form massive objects through gravitational force. Objects tend to make a disk of matter that gradually accumulates into a sphere. The accretionary model applies to smaller cosmic objects like planets and moons, to entire galaxies.

Volcanic Outgassing - The process by which volcanoes release gasses trapped in Earth’s interior during volcanic eruptions. Ancient volcanoes are believed to be the source of our atmosphere and most water on earth.

Planetesimal - A rocky object in space formed by collisions of other objects colliding and fusing due to the forces of gravity. This is a precursor to protoplanets and planets.

Proto-Planet - A large rocky object orbiting a star, theorized to be developing into a planet as it has undergone internal melting due to impact accretion.

Planet - A round, large object orbiting a star.

Unit 2: Paleontology
Sedimentation - The process of sediment being deposited after it has been weathered and eroded and accumulating at the bottom of a hill or under water. This sediment fuses together to form sedimentary rock layers.

Fossilization - The process by which dead organisms are preserved within layers of rock. Organisms must first be buried under layers of sediment, they decay, and then their internal structures (usually skeleton or exoskeleton) are replaced by minerals.

Stratigraphy - The study of rock layers and the chronological order of rock layers and archeological remains. This determines the relative age of the rock.

Geologic Time Scale - A representation of earth’s chronological history as shown through the rock record. The geologic time scale is subdivided into eons, eras, periods, and epochs.

Absolute Dating - Using radioactive isotopes to determine the age of a rock sample based on the specific half life of those elemental isotopes. The most common type of absolute dating is radiocarbon dating with carbon-14 for younger samples, and uranium for older samples.

Relative Dating - The science of determining the order of past events in history without knowing the exact estimated age of a rock sample. Geologists use relative dating to determine the chronological order of rock layers based on laws and principles of geology.

Faunal Succession - Older species will appear in lower rock layers, younger species will appear in upper rock layers.

Principle of Superposition - Unless there is tectonic activity that disturbs it, sedimentary rock will always layer from oldest to youngest. The further down you go, the older the sedimentary rock.

Index Fossils - Fossils of species that were only alive at a very specific time, used as a marker to identify specific geologic time periods when analyzing rock strata.

Topographic Map - A detailed map of landforms and geological features based on their elevation above sea level, with contour lines and landmarks such as rivers or trails. This can show the viewer mountain peaks, hills, valleys, cliffs, depressions, etc.

Contour Lines - Lines in topographic maps that connect points of equal elevation.

Unit 3: Plate Tectonics

Plate Tectonic Theory - Explains how major landforms such as ocean trenches and volcanoes are created through the interaction of tectonic plates floating on the Earth’s mantle. This theory also explains how earthquakes occur

Convergent Boundary - Zone between two tectonic plates where they are moving towards one another. One plate will subduct beneath the other, recycling the crust back into the mantle.

Divergent Boundary - Zone between two tectonic plates moving away from one another. This is where new crust forms as magma rises between the plates. These usually occur in the ocean.

Transform Boundary - Zone between two plates moving in opposite directions that slide past one another. Crust is not destroyed nor created, but this movement produces earthquakes.

Plate Boundary - Where two or more tectonic plates intersect. These boundaries are either divergent, convergent, or transform boundaries.

Subduction - The process of one plate (usually oceanic as they are denser) sliding beneath another (usually continental as they are less dense) and being melted / recycled back into the mantle.

Rift Valley - Where transform boundaries occur - two plates slide past one another producing earthquakes.

Ocean Trench - A subduction zone along a convergent tectonic boundary, where oceanic crust is being pushed down into the mantle.

Hot Spot - A stationary area of volcanic activity, also called a mantle plume, not located on a plate boundary. As the plate moves over the mantle plume, volcanoes form. This leaves behind a trail of volcanic islands and seamounts opposite of the direction that the plate is moving. This is how the Hawaiian islands formed.

Lava - Molten rock that is above Earth’s surface, after a volcano has erupted it.

Magma - Molten rock below Earth’s surface.

Shield Volcano - Large, wide volcanoes with gently sloping slides. These volcanoes release thin, runny lava and are associated with gentle eruptions and minimal pyroclastic material.

Cinder Cone Volcano - Small, narrow volcanoes created by pyroclastic materials that eject from a single vent. These can grow rapidly in a short period of time, and are associated with violent eruptions.

Composite Volcano - Also called stratovolcanoes, these are tall volcanoes that have alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, with multiple vents. The volcanoes are associated with violent eruptions.

Pyroclastic Material - Fragments of rock, ash, and gasses released by volcanoes as they erupt. Usually produced by more violent volcanic eruptions from composite or cinder cone volcanoes.

Seismology - The study of earthquakes and how seismic waves produced by earthquakes travel along earth’s surface. This is how seismologists can determine when and where earthquakes occur, and send warnings to cities as to when the earthquake will hit.

Tsunamis - A series of very large waves caused by displacement of ocean water, usually caused by an earthquake.

Unit 4: Water
Mass Wasting - Movement of rocks and sediment down the side of a cliff or hill due to gravity or weathering.

Sediment Deposition - After sediment has been weathered and eroded, it settles at the bottom of a hill or mountain, mouth of a river, or the bottom of the ocean.

Leaching - Where minerals within rocks are chemically weathered by the presence of dissolved CO2 in water (carbonic acid)

Erosion - The transport of weathered rock and sediment to a different location than where it came from.

Weathering - The breaking down of rocks into sediment by either physical or chemical means. Wind and water are major factors behind most weathering.

Glaciation - The process of land being covered by a glacier, as snow and ice does not fully melt and accumulates either over mountainous regions or directly at sea level.

Thermohaline Circulation - The global movement of ocean currents driven by density differences that transports heat and nutrients across the globe. Warmer surface currents travel towards the north pole and south pole, then cool down and sink below. These cold deep ocean currents travel back towards the equator.

Coriolis Effect - Wind and ocean currents being deflected away from the earth’s equator due to the earth’s spin. This spinning creates multiple cells of wind circulation in the atmosphere (hadley, ferrel, polar). This also causes ocean surface currents & low pressure centers (tornadoes and hurricanes) to make a counterclockwise motion in the northern hemisphere, clockwise motion in the southern hemisphere.

Groundwater - Water trapped below earth’s surface within aquifers, or the pores between rock and sediment.

Freshwater - Water with a lower salt content, found in lakes, rivers, and wetlands.

Saltwater - Water with a higher salt content, found in oceans and seas.

Bathymetric Map - Topographic maps of the sea floor with contours for each rise and fall in elevation. This shows the size, shape, and location of seaforms.

Salinity - The amount of salt dissolved in a body of water. Higher salinity, higher salt content present.

Unit 5: Weather & Climate
Weather - Atmospheric conditions for a certain location over a short period of time

Climate - Atmospheric conditions for a certain location over an extended period of time, typically 30 years

Solar Radiation - energy given off by the sun in the from of wavelength, consists of UV, Visible Light, and Infared

Emitting - energy is released as waves or particles by an object

Absorbing - radiation wavelengths are converted into heat

Albedo - the reflectiveness of the Earth’s surface.

Angle of Insolation - The angle that the sun's energy hits the Earth.  The angle changes depending on the distance from the equator.

Milankovitch Cycles - changes in the Earth’s patterns over time.  
        Eccentricity
        Axial Tilt
        Precession

Ozone Layer - Section of the Stratosphere that blocks the majority of the UV rays from the Earth.

Ozone Molecules - Oxygen molecule that consists of 3 Oxygen atoms, O3.

Jet Stream - band of strong winds in the high altitude that travel in an East-West direction.

Hadley and Ferrel Cells - circulation patterns in the Atmosphere that distribute heat and moisture.
        Hadley Cells - 00 - 300
        Ferrel Cells - 30o - 60o

Greenhouse Gases - Gasses in the atmosphere that trap and hold heat radiated by the Earth.  Water vapor, CO2, Methane are the main GH gasses

Greenhouse Effect - Particles in the atmosphere that absorb heat radiated by the Earth that keep the Earth cool during the day and warm at night

Hurricane / Typhoon - Low pressure rotating storms that form over warm ocean water in the late summer.

Upwelling - Deep cold ocean water rising to the surface to replace warm surface water that has been pushed out to sea by winds blowing off shore

Tornado - Rotating column of air associated with merging contrasting air masses. Typically part of a thunderstorm complex.

Thunderstorm - warm air mass rises quickly causing water vapor to condense and form clouds.  The energy released can produce heavy rain, strong winds, possible hail and tornadoes.

Trade winds - East to West winds near the equator

Thermal energy transfer - transfer of Energy from a warmer object to a cooler object.

El-Niño Southern Oscillation (ESNO) -  recurring pattern of Ocean temperature changes. From the warmer El Nino waters to the cooler La Nina water.

Unit 6: Human Impact 
Climate Change - Long term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. Climate change is occurring globally, trending towards global warming.

Carbon Cycle - The cycle of carbon being exchanged through the biosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and hydrosphere. Carbon normally cycles between storage in organisms, the oceans, and sediment, and carbon release into the atmosphere.

Carbon Dioxide - CO₂ gas (One carbon bonded to two oxygen molecules) Major greenhouse gas

Carbon Sequestration - Whenever carbon is stored in something other than the atmosphere. Carbon can be stored in organisms as plants photosynthesize, in the oceans through passive gas exchange. Most carbon is locked away within rock formations.

Renewable Resource - A resource from earth (sunlight, wind, water) that can replenish once it has been consumed.

Nonrenewable Resource - A resource from earth that is being consumed faster than the earth can naturally replenish it (fossil fuels).

Wind Energy - Converting wind currents into electricity through the spinning of a wind turbine connected to an internal generator.

Solar Energy - Radiant energy from sunlight that can be captured using photovoltaic cells in solar panels and converted into electricity.

Fossil Fuels - Coal, oil, and natural gas that are produced from fossilized organisms. They contain large amounts of carbon that can be converted into heat or electricity through combustion.

Harmful Algal Blooms - Excessive algal growth in bodies of water that harm aquatic ecosystems and water quality. Algal blooms may reduce available oxygen by blocking passive gas exchange with the air, and when algae dies the microbes that decompose them consume even more oxygen, essentially suffocating marine life.

Ecosystem Rehabilitation - Restoring an ecosystem to a healthy level of biotic and abiotic factors. Ensuring that there is the right balance of organisms in the food chain to function properly, and that abiotic factors are sufficient and not polluted.

Urbanization - The process of making an area more urban by building new roads, homes, work places, stores, etc. Urbanization usually occurs as an area grows in population as people move from neighboring rural communities, other states, or internationally.

Other Relevant Words
Phenomenon - An observable fact or event

Kinetic Energy - The energy possessed by an object or molecule because of its motion

Anthropogenic - Originating from human activity (anthro = human, genic = coming from)

Stringent - To be very strict or to be very precise

Enhance - To intensify or increase something

Mitigation - An action that reduces the severity of something, to weaken something

Negligible - Insignificant, something so small or unimportant it is not worth considering

Altitude - The height of something compared to either ground level or sea level

Isotopes - Atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (elemental identity) but a different number of neutrons (heavier or lighter than the standard element)

Displacement - People who must relocate because of climate factors or natural disasters

Drought - A period of drier than normal conditions in an area - decreased or no precipitation compared to the average. Drought may last anywhere from a few days to a few years.

Abiotic - Non-living factors present on earth, purely physical without organic life (sunlight, water, land)

Ecosystem - A community of living organisms and the non-living (abiotic) environmental factors around that community.

Transcript for:Comprehensive Earth Systems Science Review

Transcript for:
Comprehensive Earth Systems Science Review