Psychology Lecture Notes: Learning Chapter

Introduction to Learning

• Learning is essential in psychology as it helps adapt to the environment.
• There are three main ways we learn:
  • Observation
  • Classical Conditioning (associating stimuli)
  • Operant Conditioning (reinforcement and punishment)
• Learning helps cope with changing environments.

Definition of Learning

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge through practice or experience.
• It may be remembered for a short or long time.
• Focus on learned behavior rather than automatic responses.

Key Concepts in Learning

Associative Learning

• Associative learning involves connecting two events together.
• Two types of associative learning:
  • Classical Conditioning: Associating two stimuli.
  • Operant Conditioning: Associating a response with its consequence.

Classical Conditioning

• Example: Pavlov's Dog
  • Dog associates sound of cheese wrapper with being fed (salivation).
• Terminology:
  • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food).
  • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response to UCS (e.g., salivation).
  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that, after conditioning, triggers a response (e.g., tone).
  • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation in response to the tone).
• Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Process

• Acquisition: When learning occurs, when a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).
• Extinction: Diminishing of the conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Reappearance of a conditioned response after a rest period.
• Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
• Discrimination: Distinguishing between the conditioned stimulus and other stimuli.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Fear Conditioning: Once fear is conditioned, it is hard to extinguish (e.g., Little Albert study).
• Advertising: Associating products with positive stimuli (e.g., attractive models with colognes).

Operant Conditioning

• Learning through consequences of behavior (rewards and punishments).

Law of Effect

• Responses followed by satisfying consequences are likely to be repeated.
• Responses followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Key Concepts in Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement: Increases the frequency of behavior.
  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a favorable outcome (e.g., approval, rewards).
  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unfavorable outcome (e.g., nagging stops).
• Punishment: Decreases the frequency of behavior.
  • Positive Punishment: Adding an unfavorable consequence (e.g., scolding).
  • Negative Punishment: Removing a favorable outcome (e.g., taking away privileges).

Schedules of Reinforcement

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Rewarding every time a behavior occurs (quick learning but quick extinction).
2. Partial Reinforcement: Rewarding sometimes leads to sustained behaviors (slow learning but resistance to extinction).
   • Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses (e.g., sales bonus).
   • Variable Ratio: Reward after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., gambling).
   • Fixed Interval: Reward after a set time (e.g., weekly paycheck).
   • Variable Interval: Reward after an unpredictable time (e.g., pop quizzes).

Summary

• Learning can occur through classical conditioning (associating stimuli) and operant conditioning (associating behavior with consequences).
• Understanding these processes helps explain various behaviors and their development.