Duty and Morality: Kant explores the concept of duty derived from practical reason, distinguishing it from empirical concepts. He argues that moral actions must stem from duty rather than self-interest to have true moral worth.
Moral Virtue: There's skepticism about actions being purely virtuous due to self-interest often masquerading as duty.
Empirical vs. Rational Morality
Empirical Morality: Relies on experiences and can lead to moral skepticism.
Rational Morality: Based on a priori principles, independent of empirical evidence.
A Priori Principles: These are the basis of true moral actions, free from empirical conditions.
Imperatives
Hypothetical Imperatives: Actions based on conditions and desired outcomes.
Categorical Imperatives: Actions necessary in themselves, without reference to any other end.
Universal Law: Kant introduces the idea that our actions should be such that we can will their maxims to become universal laws.
Autonomy and Heteronomy
Autonomy: The will is self-legislating and independent of external influences.
Heteronomy: The will is influenced by external factors, leading to hypothetical rather than categorical imperatives.
Moral Law and Rational Beings
Rational Beings as Ends: Humans and rational beings should be treated as ends in themselves, not merely as means to an end.
Realm of Ends: Kant envisions a realm where all rational beings act according to laws they prescribe for themselves, promoting universal moral laws.
Duties and Examples
Perfect Duties vs. Imperfect Duties: Perfect duties are absolutely obligatory, while imperfect duties are meritorious based on moral reasoning.
Examples of Duties:
Suicide and Self-preservation: Against the principle of using oneself merely as a means.
False Promises: Cannot be universalized as it would undermine the trust necessary for promises.
Neglect of Talents: Contrary to the duty to develop one's potential.
Indifference to Others: Violates the duty to further the ends of others whenever possible.
The Principle of Morality
Formulations:
Act as if the maxim of your action were to become a universal law.
Treat humanity always as an end, never merely as a means.
Act so that your will could regard itself as giving universal law through its maxims.
Conclusion
Moral Law: Must be based on autonomy and not on empirical or subjective principles.
Sublimity and Dignity: Arise from respect for moral law, not from external motivations.
Need for a Critique: Kant suggests the need for a critique of pure practical reason to establish the validity of these moral principles.