Theory: Mere exposure effect
The mere exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon where individuals tend to develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them. The theory proposes that the more often people are exposed to a stimulus, the more they tend to like it. This theory can be applied to interpersonal attraction as well. The mere exposure effect demonstrates that the more often people see a person, the more pleasing and likable they find that person. Furthermore, it explains that the first few exposures to a person result in the most powerful increases in attraction and liking towards someone. The effect in most likely to occur when individuals have no pre-existing negative attitudes toward the person. Mere exposure can take place without conscious recognition and preferences need not require inferences.
Zajonic et al (1968)
Aim: to investigate whether increasing/ repetitive exposure to a certain person originated attraction.
RM: Lab experiment
Sample: a set of Michigan State female university seniors
Procedure
* Pts were told they were taking part in a study about visual memory
* They were shown a set of photos of male faces, each for 2 seconds
* The photos were shown at different frequency levels to different groups(low and high-frequency conditions)
* Each time they were shown the photo of the same man they were asked to rate how much they would like/ find that man attractive on a scale of 1-7
Results:
* When the participants were exposed to the image of the males more frequently, their rating of the likability of the man in the photo was significantly greater than in the low-frequency condition, where the participants only saw the photos once
Conclusions:
The study concluded that the more familiar an individuals is with another, they more likely it is that they will be attracted to them, or like others characteristics.
Link:
The study shows how relationships can be formed through attraction via the mere exposure effect. The study found that the participants rated the photos they were shown more repeatedly higher than those they had only seen once. This showed that the more familiar the participants were with the photos/ physical features of those in the photos, the more likable/attractive they found those individuals. Thai shows how the more familiar an individual is with another person the more likely it is that they will find them attractive, a major factor in /contributor to the initial formation of relationships
Study Evaluation
The sample consisted of female university senior students from Michigan University. This demographic is relatively narrow, focusing solely on one gender and a specific age group. This limits the generalizability of the findings, as attraction dynamics may differ significantly across different age groups and genders. For instance, younger individuals or those from different cultural backgrounds may respond differently to repeated exposure. Therefore, while the results provide an insight into attraction and familiarity as contributors to the formation of relationships for college-aged women, they may not reflect broader societal trends regarding attraction suggesting that the mere exposure effect might not be universally applicable across genders or age groups. This also indicated that while the theory may be seen as a good explanation for the formation of relationships, it may have weaker implications for more adverse populations.
The methodology involved presenting participants with photographs of male faces at varying frequencies and asking them to rate their attractiveness/ likeability. This approach effectively isolated the variable of expose while controlling other factors such as personality and cultural values. However, participonats were mislead about the study’s true purpose, which raises ethical concerns regarding informed consent. Additionally, using photographs may prove to reduce ignoring the role of interaction, and highlight some weakness in the mere exposure effect in terms of the role of interpersonal interaction that involves more complex social cues which could also influence attraction.
The internal validity of the study appear string due to the experimentalmdeisgn, which allows for a clear cause and effect relationship to be made by comparing the results of the two doiffernt conditions. However, the external validity could be compromised due to the artificial setting of the study and the reliance on photograph freuqencies that actual human to human interactions. Moreover, fsactors such as social desirability could influence the participants’ ratings if they fel pressured to conform tpo experected norems regarding male attractiveness/ attractive traits in men. Thai shows that whilst the study provides support for the mere exposure theory ut highlight the issue with testing the theory as it can often be subject to biases and lack of ecological validity, highlighting the issue with applying teh theory to more complex real-world settings.
Theory Evaluation
The mere exposure effect is widely applicable across various contexts, including interpersonal relationships, marketing, and media. It suggests that increased familiarity with individuals can enhance attraction and liking, making it relevant in social psychology.
The mere exposure effect may lead individuals to favour familiar stimuli even if they do not have a genuine preference for them, potentially resulting in superficial relationships based on familiarity rather than deeper connections. This may mean that the theory’s constructs are weaker as it may not be able to explain deeper, and more sentimental relationships/bonds shared between individuals
The mere exposure effect is highly testable through experimental designs that manipulate exposure levels and measure changes in preferences. Numerous studies have successfully demonstrated this effect across various stimuli, providing robust empirical support.
The mere exposure effect predicts that individuals will develop a preference for those they encounter frequently, suggesting that increasing opportunities for interaction can foster attraction, providing a simple explanation for why many individuals form relationships with people from their workplace or when going out with friends.
Enculturation as an explanation for attraction
Enculturation theory
This can be seen as a reason that influences partner preference as they have learned this from observation and direct tuition of the norms and expectations of partners from their culture
Ye et al
Aim: investigate the difference in characteristics for which online dating users seek others like themselves between Americans and Chinese
RM: content analysis
Sample: Chinese and Americans using online dating sites
Procedure: a content analysis of the features that the participants looked for in potential dating partners
Findings: more Chinese profiles provided information on their physical appearance, health conditions, financial status, education and morality, whereas American profiles focused on personality and hobbies. A similar pattern was found in their statements about mate preferences: where statements about physical characteristics, morality and financial status appeared more in Chinese personal ads, whereas statements about hobbies and personality more frequently occurred in American personal ads. Despite the focus of globalization, It appears that there may still be cultural differences in how we present ourselves to a potential mate - and what we are hoping to find
Link:
The study by Ye et al. illustrates how enculturation influences relationship formation by revealing distinct preferences in online dating profiles between Chinese and American users. Chinese profiles emphasized physical appearance, health, financial status, and morality, reflecting cultural values that prioritize stability and family approval. In contrast, American profiles focused on personality traits and hobbies, highlighting individualistic values of self-expression and personal fulfillment. These findings demonstrate that cultural norms shape what individuals seek in partners and how they present themselves, emphasizing the significant role of enculturation in shaping attraction and mate selection across different cultures.
Study Evaluation
The sample in Ye et al.'s study consisted of individuals from both China and the United States who use online dating sites. This cross-cultural approach provides a valuable opportunity to compare how different cultural backgrounds influence preferences in online dating. The inclusion of both American and Chinese users allows researchers to examine the impact of enculturation on relationship formation across distinct cultural contexts. However, the focus on online dating users may introduce a bias, as those who engage with these platforms might not represent the broader population's dating behaviors or preferences. This limitation suggests that while the findings offer insights into cultural differences in mate selection criteria, further research is needed to explore how these preferences manifest in offline relationships and among non-dating app users. Additionally, demographic characteristics such as age, socioeconomic status, and urban versus rural backgrounds could further influence the generalizability of the results across different cultural contexts.
In terms of procedure, the study utilized content analysis to examine the features that participants sought in potential dating partners. By analyzing profiles from both American and Chinese online dating sites, researchers could identify patterns in what users prioritized when presenting themselves and evaluating others. This method provides a systematic approach to understanding cultural differences in relationship formation. The findings revealed that Chinese profiles emphasized physical appearance, health conditions, financial status, education, and morality, while American profiles focused more on personality traits and hobbies. This divergence reflects how enculturation shapes individuals' values and priorities in mate selection based on cultural norms. However, content analysis may not capture the nuances of interpersonal interactions that occur in real-life dating scenarios. The implications here suggest that while the mere exposure effect can be observed through profile interactions, it is essential to consider how these online behaviors translate into offline relationship dynamics, which may involve more complex social cues and emotional connections.
The application of the findings reveals significant differences in how individuals from different cultures present themselves on online dating platforms. The emphasis on physical characteristics, morality, and financial status in Chinese profiles indicates a cultural prioritization of stability and security in relationships, which aligns with collectivist values that emphasize family and societal expectations. Conversely, the focus on personality traits and hobbies in American profiles reflects individualistic values that prioritize personal fulfillment and self-expression. These differences highlight how enculturation influences not only what individuals seek in potential partners but also how they present themselves to others. The implications for understanding enculturation are noteworthy; while familiarity gained through repeated exposure to profiles may enhance attraction, the content and context of those profiles matter significantly. Individuals may be drawn to profiles that resonate with their culturally ingrained values and expectations, indicating that enculturation must be understood alongside other factors when examining relationship formation.
Theory Evaluation
Enculturation is applicable to understanding how cultural values shape relationship preferences and behaviors. For example, the different characteristics emphasized in online dating profiles between Americans and Chinese users reflect how enculturation influences mate selection
Enculturation can also introduce biases by promoting certain cultural norms over others, which may lead individuals to overlook potential partners who do not fit their culturally ingrained expectations.
enculturation predicts that individuals will seek partners who align with their cultural values and norms, influencing their mate preferences and presentation in dating contexts. However, the predictability of these effects may vary based on individual differences and situational factors; for instance, negative initial impressions can diminish the mere exposure effect's positive outcomes or lead to resistance against culturally ingrained preferences.