Biology End of Course Exam Crash Review

Introduction

• Last-minute review for biology EOC or state exam.
• Aimed at 9th or 10th-grade students.
• Quick review of important content and basic skills.

Organic Compounds

• All matter is made of elements; focus on organic compounds containing carbon:
  • Nucleic acids: Monomers are nucleotides.
  • Proteins: Monomers are amino acids.
  • Carbohydrates: Monomers are monosaccharides.
  • Lipids: Often include fatty acids and glycerol.
• Phospholipids make up cell membranes.
• Mnemonic: "Clean Later Party" for Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids.
• Enzymes are proteins; important biological macromolecules.

Water Properties

• Universal solvent
• Polar (partially positive and negative ends):
  • Hydrophilic: Water-loving, soluble.
  • Hydrophobic: Water-fearing, insoluble.
• Special properties:
  • Cohesion: Water attracts to itself.
  • Adhesion: Water attracts to other substances.
  • Capillary Action: Cohesion and adhesion work together.
  • High Surface Tension: Water is more attracted to itself.

Cell Structure

• Basic unit of life.
• All cells have a cell membrane (phospholipid bilayer), DNA, and cytoplasm.
• Eukaryotic cells: Nucleus, membrane-bound organelles (mitochondria).
• Prokaryotic cells: No nucleus, DNA floats free.

Plant vs. Animal Cells

• Plant cells: Cell wall and chloroplasts (photosynthesis).
• Animal cells: No chloroplasts, smaller vacuoles.

Cell Membrane Transport

• Simple Diffusion: High to low concentration, no energy.
• Facilitated Diffusion: Helped by protein channels.
• Active Transport: Low to high concentration, requires ATP.
• Osmosis: Water movement across membrane.
  • Isotonic: Equal water movement.
  • Hypotonic: Water moves into the cell.
  • Hypertonic: Water moves out of the cell.

Enzymes

• Biological catalysts that speed up reactions.
• Affected by temperature and pH.
• Enzyme examples: ligase, helicase, polymerase, amylase.

Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis

• Cellular Respiration: Occurs in mitochondria; glucose + oxygen → ATP + CO2 + water.
• Photosynthesis: Plants convert sunlight, CO2, and water into glucose and oxygen.
• Fermentation: Anaerobic respiration, yeast produces ethanol and CO2.

DNA and Genetics

• DNA Structure: Double helix; bases: A-T, G-C.
• Mitosis: Asexual reproduction, identical daughter cells.
• Meiosis: Sexual reproduction, diverse offspring.
• Mendelian Genetics:
  • Dominant and recessive traits.
  • Punnit squares for genetic probability.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA to mRNA.
• Translation: mRNA to protein, uses ribosomes and tRNA.

Biotechnology

• Gel electrophoresis: DNA analysis.
• Genetic engineering, CRISPR, ethical considerations.

Evolution and Natural Selection

• Evolution: Change in genetic makeup over time.
• Natural Selection: Survival and reproduction of the fittest.
• Evidence: fossil records, DNA, embryology, phylogenetic trees.

Ecology

• Biodiversity: Variety in ecosystems enhances resilience.
• Human Impact: Pollution, deforestation, conservation efforts.
• Ozone and global warming issues.

Conclusion

• Review key topics, use supplemental resources if needed.
• Good luck on your exam!

These notes summarize the main points from the biology exam review, providing a structured overview of topics relevant for exam preparation. Ensure to review each section for detailed understanding.