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Medieval India
(C) The Mughal Empire
SYLLABUS
Medieval India (C) The Mughal Empire
Sources: Ain-i-Akbari, Taj Mahal, Jama
Masjid and Red Fort.
Political history and administration (Babur,
Akbar and Aurangzeb).
On the eve of Babur's invasion of India in 1526,
India was ruled by breakaway kingdoms of the
Delhi Sultanate and there was no powerful central
authority. Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa
and Mewar had all become independent. These
States were always fighting against one another
with the result that a sense of insecurity and
tension reigned supreme throughout the country.
However, these regional kingdoms, one by one,
came under the control of the Mughals.
SOURCES
The main sources of information about the
Mughals are:
1. Ain-i-Akbari: It was written by Abul
Fazl, the minister and one of the nine jewels at
Akbar's court. It was a part of a large project of history writing commissioned by Akbar. It is
regarded as a precious source of information
about the administration and culture during
the reign of Akbar.
The Ain-i-Akbari is divided into five books.
The first book deals with the imperial household.
The second book deals with the servants of the
emperor, the military and civil services. The
third book deals with the imperial administration.
90 Total History and Civics-IX
It consists of the regulations for the judicial a
executive departments, and the divisions of
empire. The fourth book contains informati
about Hindu philosophy, science, social custo
and literature. The fifth book contains the w
sayings of Akbar. This also contains an accou
of the ancestry and biography of the auth
Abul Fazl.
2. The Taj Mahal, Agra: It was built by She
Jahan in memory of his beloved wife Mum
Mahal. It is the mausoleum of both Munt
Mahal and Shah Jahan. It is built at Agra on ti
banks of the River Yamuna. It was designed
Ustad Isha Khan and it is made of pure whi marble. The main structure is constructed on
high platform. On each of the four corners of th
platform there is a minaret. The central dom
rises to a height of 56.1 metres. The interior ha
an octagonal chamber. The marble dome in th
centre looks like an inverted lotus. The actu
graves are in lower chamber, underground.
The entire structure of Taj Mahal is made
marble and the walls are decorated with fors
designs made of semi-precious stones. Th
Holli
Taj Mahal
Jama Masjid
method of decoration is called pietra dura. The
Taj Mahal brought together all the architectural
forms developed by the Mughals like massive
domes of marble, pietra dura inlay work and
kiosks (chhatris).
Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO
World Heritage site in 1983 and was declared as
one of the Seven Wonders of the World in 2007.
3. The Jama Masjid: It was built by Shah
Jahan and is the biggest mosque in India. Its
courtyard has the capacity to accommodate thousands of people at a time. It is built on a lofty
basement with majestic flights of steps leading
to the imposing gateways on three sides of the
courtyard. It has three gateways, four towers
and two 40m high minarets constructed of red
sandstone and white marble. The northern gate
has 39 steps, the eastern gate has 35 steps and
the southern gate has 33 steps. The face of its
spacious prayer-hall consists of eleven arches
of which the central arch rises far above the
roof level.
4. The Red Fort, Delhi: It was built by
Shah Jahan after he decided to shift his capital
to Delhi. It is located on the banks of the
Yamuna. Red sandstone and marble were
used in its construction. The fort has massive
walls and two gateways. The Western Gateway
is known as the Lahori Gate. This gate was
used for the emperor's ceremonial purposes.
Among the many impressive buildings in the
complex are Diwan-i-Aam and Diwan-i-Khas.
The Diwan-i-Khas is the lavishly ornamented
hall where the Peacock Throne was placed. The
hal was used by the emperor to give audience Red Fort, Delhi
to the princes of the royal family, nobles and
other important dignitaries. Aurangzeb later
built the Moti Masjid in the Red Fort. It is made
of pure marble. The Red Fort is an important
historical monument. Many historical events are
connected with this fort. The Prime Minister of
India every year hoists the national flag from
its ramparts on Independence Day (August 15).
MUGHAL DYNASTY
BABUR
Babur, whose full name was Zahir-ud-din
Muhammad Babur, was a descendant of Timur,
the Mongol Ruler. At Kabul, he carved out a
small principality for himself. Having established
himself at Kabul, Babur turned his eyes upon
India.
Daulat Khan Lodhi, the Governor of Punjab
invited Babur to oust Ibrahim Lodhi from the
throne. In the First Battle of Panipat (1526), Babur
Babur
Medieval India (C) The Mughal Empire 91
defeated Ibrahim Lodhi and occupied Delhi
and Agra. Babur had to wage two other wars, one against Rana Sanga of Mewar,
and the other against the eastern Afghans,
before he could consolidate his hold on
Kandahar
this area. The Battle of Khanwa (1527) was
fiercely fought between Babur and Rana
Sanga's forces. Rana Sanga's forces were
defeated. The Battle of Khanwa secured
Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region.
In 1529, Babur met the combined forces
of the Afghans and Nusrat Shah of Bengal
at the Battle of Ghagra, near the junction
of Ghagra river with the Ganges. Babur
crossed the river and compelled the Bengal
and the Afghan armies to retreat. However, he
could not win a decisive victory. He died in 1530,
even before he could stabilise the Mughal empire.
AKBAR
He was the greatest of Mughal rulers of India. He
was only thirteen years old when he ascended
the throne and was guided by his tutor, Bairam
Khan. Akbar succeeded to a difficult position
and had to virtually reconquer his empire. The
Afghans were regrouping their forces under the leadership of Hemu, the Wazir of Adil Shah,
for a final showdown with the Mughals. In the
Second Battle of Panipat, the Mughal forces
led by Bairam Khan defeated Hemu. After
having established himself in Delhi and Agra,
Akbar captured Malwa and Gondwana, Bengal,
Gujarat, Kashmir and Kabul. He ventured
beyond the Vindhyas in Deccan and after a stiff
resistance, defeated many local rulers. Finally
Ahmadnagar, Berar and Khandesh were annexed
KABUL
Peshawai
AKBAR'S EMPIRE
AD 1556 - 1805
Panipal
DELH
AW
ATTA Amarkot
AJMER Ranth
Chitor
M A L S AHMADABAD
Narmada
TAp! KHANDESH
V A GONCWANA
BERAR
BAY
OF
BENGAL
to the Mughal empire. He also subdued to
Rajput princes, except Mewar. As a result, t
famous Battle of Haldighati was fought in 15)
between Maharana Pratap, the ruler of Mey
and the Mughal army led by Raja Man Sing
Maharana Pratap fought with matchless cours
but had to escape from the battlefield when i
was heavily wounded
Akbar died in 1605. By the time Akbar did
his authority had extended from Assam in th
east to the areas beyond the north-wester
frontier, i.e., Kabul and Kandahar in the west.
the Deccan his dominions included Ahmadnaga
Khandesh and Berar. The Kingdoms of Multan
Sindh, Gujarat, Kashmir and Bengal ceased i
exist.
Akbar's Rajput Policy: The Rajput polig
of Akbar proved to be one of his greates
achievements. He entered into marriage alliance with the Rajputs. Bhara Mal, the ruler of Amber
married his younger daughter, Harkha Bai t
Akbar. Akbar not only gave complete religiow
freedom to his wives who followed Hinduism bu
also gave an honoured place to their parents an
relations in the nobility. Thus, the Rajput polig
of Akbar ended the centuries-old animosity
between the Muslim rulers and the Rajputs
Since the Rajputs were made equal partners in
the Mughal government, it considerably affected
the public policies of the Mughals and greatly
helped in the growth of a composite culture.
Steps Towards Integration: Akbar took
a number of measures to promote greater
understanding between the Hindus and the
Akbar
Total History and Civics-IX
92
Muslims. Through these measures he created
an atmosphere in which liberal views could grow
and finally cultural and emotional integration
of the people could develop. Some of these
measures were the following:
1. Akbar abolished the pol tax or jizyah, which the non-Muslims were required to pay.
He also abolished the pilgrim tax on
bathing at holy places such as Prayag and
Benaras. Further, he abolished the practice
of forcibly converting prisoners of war to
Islam. Al these steps laid the foundation
of a society based on equal rights to all
citizens, irrespective of their religious beliefs.
2. To strengthen the liberal principles,
Akbar enrolled a number of Hindus into
the nobility. While most of these were
Rajput rajas, many of whom entered into
matrimonial alliances with Akbar, mansabs
(position or rank) were given to others on
the basis of their competence.
3. In 1575, Akbar built a hall called Ibadat
Khana or the Hall of Prayer at Fatehpur
Sikri. At this hall, he used to call selected
theologians of all religions, mystics and
intellectuals and discuss religious and
spiritual matters with them.
4. Akbar issued a Declaration' or mahzar, which
made Akbar the supreme or final arbiter in
religious matters and replaced the power of the ulema by the power of the Emperor.
Akbar in the Ibadat Khana
5. Akbar
promulgated a new faith called
Din-i-Illahi. It was based on the principle
of oneness of God. The new religion."
stressed on virtues like courage, loyalty
and justice. It also demanded loyalty to
the Emperor. The basic purpose of forming
Din-i-Illahi was Sulh-kul or universal harmony
which governed all public policies of Akbar.
6. Akbar set up a large translation department
for translating works in Sanskrit, Arabic and
Greek into Persian. Thus, the Singhasan
Battisi, the Atharva Veda and the Bible
were taken up for translation. These were
followed by the Quran, the Mahabharata,
the Gita a n d the Ramayana.
1 : 8 0 .
/REFORMS:
Akbar introduced a n u m b e r of social a n d
educational reforms:
1. Akbar issued orders to the kotwals to check
the forcible practice of Sati or the burning of a widow on the funeral pyre of her husband.
However, the women who committed Sati of
their own free will were allowed to d o so.
2. Akbar legalised widow remarriage.
3. Akbar was against anyone having more t h a n
one wife unl e s s the first wife c o u l d not b e a r
c h i l d r e n .
4. Akbar raised the age of marriage to 14 for
girls and 16 for boys.
5. Akbar revised the educational syllabus,
laying more emphasis on moral education
and mathematics a n d on secular s u b j e c t s
such as agriculture, geometry, astronomy,
logic and history.
The other Mughal emperors a l s o were
patrons of education and there was considerable
development in this area. In fact one of the duties
of the public works department, Shuhra-i-am
was to build schools and colleges.
Jahangir passed a law, whereby if a rich m a n
was to die without an heir, his assets would be
used by the State to help in the development
and maintenance of educational institutions.
Shah Jahan, although more interested in building monuments, took some significant educational
initiatives like providing scholarships to assist
students.
Female e d u c a t i o n a l s o e x i s t e d i n s o m e
form during the Mughal period. Girls from
Medieval India (C) The Mughal Empire 9 3
AURANGZEB'S EMPIRE
INDIA IN AD 1707
Peshawar.
Sikhs
Raputs dia
Bundelas
Marathas
BAY OF BENGAL
Arabian Sea
INDIAN OCEAN
rich families usually had access to education,
through private tuitions at home. The middle
class giris were usually able to attend the same
schools as boys.
AURANGZEB
Aurangzeb ascended the throne after a long and
fierce struggle with his father and three brothers. His long reign of 50
years was devoted
to wars in different
parts of the country.
At its height, his
rule extended over
almost the entire
subcontinent-from
Kashmir in the north
to river Kaveri in
the south and from
Kabul in the west
to Chittagong in the
east. He reversed
Akbar's policy of Aurangzeb
religious tolerance.
He spent the last days of his reign attempting
to suppress rebellions.
Under Aurangzeb, the Mughal empire
reached its largest extent, but also witnessed a
9 4 Total History and Civics-IX
series of political disturbances. Aurangzeb di
in 1707. He left behind an empire, which
on the verge of collapse. ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM
OF THE MUGHALS
The Mughal Emperors established a centralise
State based on military power. It rested on t
pilars - the absolute authority of the Empero
and the strength of the army. However, the Mugh
rulers made a conscious atempt to accommoda
the different traditions prevalent in the count
Monarch: There are a number of references int
court chronicles of the Mughals which show t
belief that the power of the Mughal kings can
directly from God.
According to Abul Fazl, the office of a true ru
was a very responsible one which depended a
divine illumination. Thus, the Mughal Empero
endowed with the divine light, was regarded
the vice-regent of God on earth. He ruled the
empire with paternal love towards his subjec
without distinction of sect or creed.
The Emperor was the head of the executi
legislature, judiciary and the army. He was the
supreme commander of the armed force
and all other commanders were appointed and
dismissed by him. He made laws and issud administrative ordinances. The royal uzuk (smal
singet ring) was affixed to farmans granting
appointments, titles, jagirs, etc.
Ministers: In the days of Babur and Humayu,
there used to be a Prime Minister, known a
vakil, who was entrusted with large powers in
civil and military affairs. During the early year
of Akbar's reign Bairam Khan was the vaki
However, after Bairam Khan's death, the office
of vakil was stripped off all its powers and
became more or less honorary.
The head of the revenue department was the
wazir, known as diwan or diwan-i-ala. The diwan
was responsible for all income and expenditure.
The head of the military department was
called the mir bakhshi. The mir bakhshi was
also the head of the intelligence and information
agencies of the empire.
Judiciary: The judicial department was headed
by the gazi. This post was sometimes combirted
i with that of the chief sadar who was responsible
for all charitable and religious matters.
Provincial Government: Akbar paid great
attention to the organisation of the Provincial government. The empire was divided into
twelve provinces or subahs, which was further
subdivided into sarkars and each sarkar into
parganas or mahals.
Each Subah was headed by one governor
who was called the subahdar or sipah salar or
nazim. He was usually a mansabdar of high
rank. His functions included maintenance of
law and order, enforcement of imperial decrees,
administration of criminal justice and the
smooth collection of revenue. The provincial
diwan was incharge of revenue administration of
the province. His responsibilities were similar to
those of the central diwan. Besides the subahdar
and the diwan, the other important officials in
the province were faujdar, kotwal, bakhshi, sadr
' gazi and muhtasib.
The Centre appointed the officials of the
provinces, sarkars and parganas. Hence, these
divisions were directly responsible to the centre.
Mansabdari System: The mansabdari system
introduced by Akbar was a unique feature of
the administrative system of the Mughal empire.
Under this system, every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). Thus, the term mansabdar refers
to an individual who holds a mansab, meaning
a position or rank. The mansabdars formed the
ruling group in the Mughal empire. Almost the
whole nobility, the bureaucracy as well as the
military hierarchy, had mansabs. The lowest
rank in the system was 10, and the highest was
5000 for nobles. It was a grading system used
by the Mughals to fix rank, salary and military
responsibilities. These ranks were divided
into two, namely zat and sawar. Zat fixed the
personal status of a person and the salary due
to him. The higher the zat, the more prestigious
was the noble's position in court and the larger
his salary. The sawar rank indicated the number
of cavalrymen or sawar a mansabdar was
required to maintain. For every ten cavalrymen,
the mansabdar had to maintain twenty horses.
The mansabdars received their salaries as
revenue assignments called jagirs. However, most
of the mansabdars did not actually reside in
or administer their jagirs. They only had rights
to the revenue of their assignments which was
collected from them by their servants while the m a n s a b d a r s themselves served in s o m e o t h e r
part of the country.
Jahangir maintained the mansabdari system
developed by Akbar. But he reduced the average
maintain. Thus, a noble was expected to maintain
a quota of only one-third of his sawar rank and
in some cases, one-fourth. During the reign of
Aurangzeb, there was a huge increase in the
number of mansabdars. These and other factors
created a shortage in the number of jagirs.
Land Revenue System; A uniform system of
measurement was established for calculating
the land tax. Todar Mal drew up schemes for
effective tax collection. This system enriched
state treasury. The state also gave loans to poor
farmers. This ushered in progress in agriculture,
trade and industry.
TIMELINE
1530 Accession of Humayun.
1540 End of the Mughal empire; Battle of
Kannauj; Establishment of the Suri
empire by Sher Shah Suri.
1545 Death of Sher Shah Suri.
1555 End of the Suri empire; Re-establishment of the Mughal empire.
1556 Death of Humayun; Accession of Akbar;
Second Battle of Panipat.
1605 Death of Akbar; Accession of Jahangir.
1627 Death of Jahangir; Birth of Shivaji.
1628 Accession of Shah Jahan.
1658 Accession of Aurangzeb.
1675 Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur by
Aurangzeb.
1707 Death of Aurangzeb; Accession of
Bahadur ShahI.
1837 Accession of Bahadur Shah Zafar.
1858 End of the Mughal dynasty; Bahadur
Shah Zafar exiled to Myanmar.
Medieval India (C) The Mughal Empire 95
C H A P T E R 1 1
The Modern Age
in Europe (A) Renaissance
S Y L L A B U S
The Modern Age i n Europe
(a) R e n a i s s a n c e - d e f i n i t i o n , c a u s e s
(capture of Constantinople, decline of
Feudalism, new trade routes, spirit of
enquiry and invention of the printing press) a n d impact on art, literature a n d science
(Leonardo Da Vinci, William Shakespeare
and Copernicus.
their manuscripts. Rome then became the centre
of Greek culture. These scholars were geniuses
men of liberal outlook, humanism and logical
thinking. Wherever they went, they spread thi
new spirit and ideas. In this way they revived
the interest of the people in the study of Greck
philosophy, science, art a n d literature. The
revival of the learning of Greek classics paved
t h e way for t h e R e n a i s s a n c e .
2. DECLINE OF FEUDALISM
Feudalism was a system according to which
the medieval European society was organised
on the basis of land tenure. In this system, al
the people, from the King down to the lowes
landowners were bound together by obligation
and defence. The King used to give estates to
his lords, who were known as Dukes and Earls.
The Lords, distributed a part of their land among
the lesser lords or Barons, who provided them
with military support. The Dukes and Earls
owed allegiance directly to the King, whereas the Barons owed allegiance to the Dukes and Earls.
The knights formed the lower category of feudal
The term R e n a i s s a n c e means rebirth or revival.
It s t a n d s for a complex transitional movement
in Europe between medieval and modern times
beginning in the 14th century in Italy and
lasting into the 17th century. It marked the
revival of the freedom to think and act without
being controlled by any external agency. It was
also a revival of the study of the ancient Greek
and Roman classics. During this period, many
remarkable changes took place in Europe, which
had their impact on the history of the world.
One of them was the disintegration of the feudal
system in Europe which ushered in a new social
and economic order. This marked the beginning
of t h e m o d e r n era.
CAUSES OF RENAISSANCE
1. CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE
Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern
Roman Empire and was a centre of Greek and
Roman cultures. It had valuable manuscripts of
Greek and Roman writers. But Constantinople
fell into the hands of the Turks in 1453. Many Greek and Roman scholars were thus, forced
to shift to Rome and other parts of Europe with
Total History and Civics-IX
Florence in Italy
11 0
Feudal Structure
lords. The feudal lords did not cultivate their
lands and gave it to the peasants for cultivation.
The society had a graded organisation in
which there was hardly any chance for social
mobility and progress. It was also opposed to
freedom and equality of rights. However, decline
of feudalism in the 13th and 14th centuries
provided an impetus to free thinking. The peace
and freedom that prevailed after the decline of
feudalism favoured the growth of New Learning.
It led to the new developments in the spheres
of art, literature, philosophy and science and
contributed to the rise of Renaissance.
3. NEW TRADE ROUTES
The navigators of Portugal and Spain played an
important part in the geographical explorations
and discovering new trade routes. Constantinople
fell into the hands of the Turks in 1453 and the trade routes between t h e West and the East were
closed. As a result, the European traders and
Christopher Columbus Ferdinand Magellan
navigators felt the need for discovering new sea
routes. Prince Henry, the Navigator of Portugal
discovered a sea route to Africa. Bartholomew
Diaz was successful in reaching,
the Cape of
Good Hope at the southernmost point of Africa.
Columbus discovered America in 1492. In 1498
Vasco da Gama sailed as far as India. Ferdinand
Magellan made a voyage around the world and
reached a vast ocean, which he called the Pacific
Ocean. Due to these discoveries, contact between
the East and the West began to develop and
there was a fusion of ideas. The opening of new
trade routes not only encouraged trade but also
created the spirit of adventure and broadened
t h e m e n t a l horizon.
4. SPIRIT OF ENQUIRY
In the Medieval Age, all human activities, both
mental and physical, were controlled and guided
by the authority of the Pope and the Church.
The human mind was virtually not allowed to develop independent thinking. But a number of
scholars discarded the ideas of medieval period
and developed a spirit of enquiry and a sense
of curiosity among the people. They taught
human beings to know the Why and How of
things. They did not regard anything as correct
merely because the theologies of the Church
had regarded it as correct. They questioned
the authority of the Church. They wanted a
transition from faith to reason, observation and
experimentation. The following were the factors
which were responsible for the development of
the spirit of enquiry:
(1) Role of Original Thinkers: During the
Medieval Age, the Church discouraged original
thinking and called upon scholars to put faith in
the Church dogmas. However, original thinking
could not be suppressed for a long time and
certain bold and independent thinkers criticised
the Church and asked the people to develop
their own thinking. Thinkers like Roger Bacon,
Abelard, Thomas Aquinas revolutionised the
thought process and laid stress on reasoning.
These original thinkers are called the forerunners of Renaissance.
(i) Crusades: The Crusades were the religious
expeditionary wars with the goal of restoring
the Church's access to holy places in and near
The Modern Age in Europe (A) Renaissance 111
Sixteenth century ship
Jerusalem. They brought the people of Europe
into direct contact with the people of Asia. The
Crusades brought to Western Europe ideas from
the East. It widened their outlook on life. People
began to rely on reason rather than on blind faith.
) Development of Science: In the age of
faith, science had little scope for development.
But certain medieval scholars showed a
scientific attitude and asked their students to
observe things in nature. This brought in many
new inventions and discoveries. Development
of science created the spirit of enquiry and
scientific temper. Roger Bacon contemplated the
use of horseless carriages and flying machines.
Copernicus proved that the earth moves round
M g j a a m
T A p
Printing Press 11 2 Total History and Civics-IX
the sun. Galileo invented the telescope
inventions broadened the mental outlook
people and put an end to the old belie
traditions.
5. INVENTION OF THE PRINT PRESS
The first printing press was set up in Gen
by Gutenberg in the middle of the 15th cem
Later on Caxton introduced it in England
The invention of printing press in the mi
of the 15th century in Europe made it possib
produce books in large numbers. The Bible:
many other religious and classical books r
printed and made available all over Europe
printing press spread knowledge far and
Scholars found it easier to read printed bo
than hand-written manuscripts. In the No
Ages, books were few and they were bef
the reach of the ordinary people. The Prin
Press enabled Europe to multiply books and;
them within the reach of people. Printing a
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b o o k s i n f l u e n c e d p e o p l e s a t i t u
to life and brought about a new awakening
Europe. PRINCIPLES OF RENAISSANCE
The Renaissance was not a sudden or spontane
development. It was based on certain belies
what is right or wrong. It had certain feature
which touched common people, different aspects of life. 1
the aristocrats, the kings a
even the Popes were affected by it.
Nicolaus Copernicus: He was a mathematician
and astronomer, who formulated a model of the
universe that placed the sun rather than the earth
at the centre of the universe. The publication
of this model i n h i s b o o k D e revolutionibus
orbium celestium (On the Revolutions of the
Celestial spheres) just before his death in 1543
Nicolaus Copernicus
is regarded as a major event in the history of
science, triggering the Copernican Revolution.
Copernicus based his Heliocentric theory on
the following: There is no one centre of all celestial circles
or spheres.
The centre of the earth is not the centre
of the universe, but only of gravity and
of the lunar s p h e r e .
Al the spheres revolve a b o u t t h e s u n a s their midpoint and therefore, the sun is
the centre of t h e u n i v e r s e .
The earth has more t h a n one motion,
turning on its a x i s a n d m o v i n g in
spherical orbit around the sun
CHAPTER 12
The Modern Age
in Europe (B) Reformation
SYLLABUS
The Modern Age i n Europe
(p) Reformation - causes (dissatisfaction
with the practices of the Catholic Church and
new learning); Martin Luther's contribution,
Counter Reformation.
The Reformation is the name given to a group of
religious movements of the sixteenth century
launched by the Christians against the various
drawbacks of the Church and the objectionable
practices of the clergymen. The main target of
these movements was the Pope, the highest
authority in the Church hierarchy. These
movements created a split in the Christian
Church between those who continued to remain
loyal to the Pope at Rome and those who broke away from the Church at Rome. The former
were known as Roman Catholics and the latter
as Protestants.
The Reformation broke out in a number
of countries like England, France, Germany,
erstwhile Czechoslovakia, Switzerland and
Scotland. However, all Protestants did not
share the same religious beliefs and rituals.
The Protestants of one country and those
" another differed from each other in many
ways. An extreme form of Protestantism
was Calvinism. Presbyterianism of Scotland
and Puritanism of England were similar
to Calvinism in simplicity, strictness and
austerity. Although these movements were
organised by different people under different
names, they are collectively termed as Reformation
txisting Church.
because they were aimed at reforming the then
CAUSES OF T H E REFORMATION
The following causes were responsible for the
Reformation:
1 . DISSATISFACTION WITH THE PRACTICES
OF CATHOLIC CHURCH The Catholic Church, during the early medieval
period, had become a vast h i e r a r c h i c a l
organisation headed by the Pope in Rome.
The Pope was the s u p r e m e authority over the
entire hierarchy and he exercised this authority
directly. Systematic efforts were made to extend
the authority of the Church over everyone, high
or low. But during the 14th century, people
became dissatisfied with s o m e o f t h e C h u r c h
practices and this dissatisfaction paved the way
the flownation. These
for Reformation. These Church practices were
(i) Economic Factors: In the middle ages,
the Church had vast properties, which gave
ample income to the Church. Besides, one-
tenth of the income of a person was given to the
Church. This was called the tithe. In addition
to this, the clergy collected another sum called
the 'Peter's Pence' from the people. Pope Leo X
wanted to build St. Peter's Church. So he issued
pardon certificates called 'Indulgences' to those
who gave money to build the Church. Indulgences
were letters which remitted punishments of the
sinners who bought them, both in this life and after their death. Normally, the priests imposed
a penance or punishment on a person who had
sinned and he was required to perform a special
service or make a pilgrimage to a holy place.
But now they could be freed from doing penance
for their sins by buying a Letter of Indulgence.
Finally, the Church offices were given to the
highest bidder. This practice came to be known
The Modern Age in Europe (B) Reformation 121
Erasmus
as simony. Al these practices annoyed the rulers
as well as the common people.
(il) Corruption in the Church: In the
beginning, the clergy led an exemplary life and
commanded great respect in the society. But
with the passage of time, moral decay crept into
some areas in the functioning of the Church.
Some of the clergymen lacked proper education
and some lived in luxury and neglected their
religious duties. The priests promised salvation
in exchange for fees. They could pronounce a
marriage lawful or unlawful. In fact, there were
fees for every transaction in life, from birth to
death, fees for the peace of the soul and fees for the souls of the people dead long ago. These
practices were severely criticised and opposed
by the people. Desiderius Erasmus, a Dutch
philosopher and humanist exposed them in his
book named In Praise of Folly' and prepared the
ground for the Reformation.
(i) Rulers' Resentment: Pope's interference
in the political affairs was naturally opposed
by the kings. They strongly supported the
Reformation Movement in order to weaken the
Church. As early as the 13th century, the rulers
of Europe had quarrelled with the Popes over
the royal right to tax the Church property. The
rivalry ended in the defeat of the Papacy.
The French King, Philip IV had forced
Pope Clement V to leave his headquarters at
Rome and stay in Avignon in France, when the
latter interfered in the former's political affairs.
Total History and Civics-IX
King Henry VI of England hardly cared fo
the Pope. He got the Church lands and in 1536
passed an Act for the dissolution of monasteries,
whereby smal monasteries with an income ti
less than 200 a year were closed and ther buildings, land and money taken by the Crown.
By another Act of 1539, larger monasteries were
closed. The monasteries were a reminder o
the power of the Catholic Church. Besides, the
monasteries were the wealthiest institutions in
the country. King Henry's lavish lifestyle, along
with his wars, had led to a lack of money. By
destroying the monastic system, Henry could
acquire all its wealth and property, while at the
same time removing the infiuence of the Pope
(iv) Movements against the Church:
Anti-Church movements began in Europe in the
middle ages. These movements directed their
attacks on the wrong doings of the Church. John
Wycliffe, an English priest and Oxford professor,
criticised the worldliness of the Church and
some of its practices. He laid emphasis on
the Bible as the sole guide for salvation. The
Church ordered his expulsion from the Oxford
University where he was teaching. This created
dissatisfaction among the scholars.
(v) Immediate Cause: Long before the open
breach with Rome, there had been some cases
of protest against the power of the Pope. These minor revolts were crushed with a heavy hand.
So the early reformers met with failure. The
challenge was accepted by a German priest,
Martin Luther. He raised a strong voice and
launched a movement against the abuses in
the Church and the authority of the Pope.
This proved to be the immediate cause of the
Reformation.
2. NEw LEARNING
The spread of new learning and spirit of enquiry
was developed by Renaissance scholars. The
invention of printing press and the printing of
the Bible in vernacular languages brought a new
outlook among laymen.
The Renaissance encouraged spirit of
enquiry, developed critical attitude and broadened
the mental outlook of man. People then began to
question everything including the authority of the
Pope. They criticised the Church practices, rituals
and the lifestyles of some of the clergymen. New
learning led to a secular outlook among people.
1 2 2
Nobles and merchants were jealous of the
wealth of the Church. The common man in Europe looked upon the Church taxes with contempt. The
changing atitude of people towards the Church
led to the growth of secular ideas.
MARTIN LUTHER'S CONTRIBUTION
In the 16th century, Martin Luther, a German
dergyman and professor of Theology at the
University of Wittenburg, openly criticised
papacy. He accused the Church for the
sale of indulgences, In 1517, Luther wrote
Ninety Ave theses or statements dealing with the
difference between the beliefs and practices of
the Church and nailed them on the church door
at Wittenburg, Earlier in 1512, he undertook
a pilgrimage to Rome and found that some of
the clergymen were living a luxurious life. This
made him a strong opponent of the Church.
The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, upon
request by the Pope, asked Luther to defend
his case before a Grand Diet held at Worms
known as the Diet of Worms consisting of Council
of Princes and high dignitaries in 1521. The
Diet ordered that Luther's writings be burnt
and Luther be outlawed. But Luther had the
support of German rulers; and so no harm was done to him.
This movement soon came to be described as
the German Protestant Movement. Luther devoted
his time translating the Bible into German and
set up an independent church. Luther travelled
extensively to different parts of Europe, Germany,
Norway, Sweden and Denmark. The Protestant
Movement found wide acceptance.
Lutheranism was recognised as a legal form
of Christianity by a treaty known as 'The Peace
Martin Luther
of Augsburg in 1555, nine years after the death
of Luther. This treaty was signed between the
Schmalkaldic League (formed by Luther and
some German Princes) and the Roman Catholic
Church after a long civil war. In Germany, the
Southern states continued to remain loyal to
the Catholic Church whereas the Northern states
accepted Lutheranism.
COUNTER REFORMATION
The Reformation Movement was against the
Roman Catholic Church and brought about the
birth of the Protestant Church. In order to restore
the credibility of the Catholic Church, a large number of dedicated Christians including some
Popes introduced certain reforms within the
Church. This movement is known as the Counter
Reformation. A Church Council was convened at
Trent in northern Italy in 1545 by Pope Paul III.
The Council of Trent (1545-1563): The Council
made a number of changes in the Catholic
Church. It expanded its doctrines in the lightof
the changed attitudes of the times. It condemned
leading an irresponsible religious life by the
clergy. Books, which were considered to have
had ideas against the Catholic teaching, were
banned. The Pope was regarded as the head of
the Catholic Church and the final interpreter
of the Christian doctrine. The Council of Trent
was responsible for establishing centres known
as seminaries to educate and train priests. It
forbade the Church to charge fees for conducting
religious services, and advocated the use of the
local language for preaching in the Church.
Society of Jesus: As a result of the Counter
Reformation, different religious orders were
founded. One of them was the Society of Jesus
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a Spanish noble. He studied theology in Sorbonne University.
He founded a religious Order by the name of
the Society of Jesus with the permission of the
Pope. It speedily gained recognition and was
successful in winning back more adherents in
Europe, India, China, Africa and the Americas.
Saint Francis Xavier: St. Francis Xavier was a
follower of Ignatius Loyola. He travelled to China
and Japan for the propagation of Christianity.
He came to India and worked till his death. His
mortal remains are found at the Church of Bom
Jesus in old Goa. The selfless and dedicated
service rendered by the Jesuits helped in restoring
the credibility of the Roman Catholic Church.
The Modern Age in Europe (5) Reformation
1 2 3
CHAPTER 4
Elections
SYLLABUS
Elections
Meaning; Composition of Election Commission
(in brief); Direct and Indirect election; General
election; Mid-term election and By-election.
MEANING OF ELECTIONS Democracy is a form of government in which
the people have a say in who should hold
power and how the power should be used.
In a democracy, citizens choose or elect their
representatives either directly or indirectly to
run the country.
Election is a procedure whereby persons
are chosen, by voting, to represent the voters
for running the government. Generally, there is
a contest between different candidates for the
same position. Thus, in the elections there are
winners and losers.
In modern societies elections are fought
on party lines. A political party is a group of
people holding similar views or beliefs. Any
political party or a combination of parties
getting the largest number of votes, form the
government.
KINDS OF ELECTIONS
DIRECT ELECTIONS
People of India directly elect their representatives
to the Lok Sabha and the State Legislative
Assemblies. The members of the State Legislative
Assembly, known as MLAs, are directly elected by the people of the State. The members of the
Total History and Civics-IX
Lok Sabha are known as Members of Parliament
(MP) or Members of the Lok Sabha. Under the
existing political system elections are held on
party lines. The party or a combination of parties
having the largest number of legislators elect
their leader from amongst themselves, who is
made the Chief Minister or the Prime Minister,
as the case may be.
INDIRECT ELECTIONS
India has two types of legislatures both at the
Union and State level. At the State level only
some States have the second house called
Vidhan Parishad, the Legislative Council or the
Upper House. At the Union Level the upper
house is known as Rajya Sabha, which is a
permanent house. The election to both houses
at the State and the Union level is Indirect i.,
the representatives are not directly elected by
the people. The elected representatives of the
people elect the members of the Upper House,
both at the Centre as well as the State. In the
case of the Legislative Council, members are elected by members of the Legislative Assembly
Representatives Form
Elect
People DEMOCRACY Government
Make
Obey Laws
1 6 0
from amongst persons who are not the members along with the Parliamentary Elections. Earlier
of the Legislative Assembly. up to 1957 simultaneous elections were held for
The Rajya Sabha consists of not more than both the Lok Sabha and the State Assemblies.
250 members. Out of these, 238 members are However, on account of early dismissal and mid-
elected by the elected members of the Legislative term elections the two got gradually
separated.
Assembly of each State. The remaining 12 MID-TERM ELECTION
members are nominated by the President
from among persons having special knowledge This type of election is held when a State
Legislative
or practical experience in matters such as Assembly or the Lok Sabha is dissolved before
literature, science, art and social service. the completion of its full term (5 years). The
new house will normally have a full five year
Election of the President and the Vice- term. This election is called Mid-term Election.
President of India: In both these cases the
elections are Indirect. The President of India is By-ELECTIONS
elected indirectly by the members of an Electoral When a seat held by any member of the
College consisting of the elected members of Legislative Assembly in the Centre or State falls both Houses of Parliament and the elected vacant on account of death, resignation of the
members of the Legislative Assemblies of the member before completion of his/ her term, to fill
States including National Capital Territory of up this vacancy the election which is held called
Delhi and the Union Territory of Puducherry. By-Election. The person so elected remains the
The election takes place in accordance with member for the unexpired term of the House.
the system of proportional representation by
means of a single transferable vote. Like the ELECTION COMMISSION
President, the election of the Vice-President is Election is the best way by which representatives
also Indirect. The Vice-President is elected by of the people can be sent to the legislatures.
India
members of both Houses of Parliament. In this being a federal country makes provisions for
election, the State Legislatures do not take part. holding elections both for the Central and State
legislatures. Hence, elections need to be free and
GENERAL ELECTIONS fair with wide participation. Keeping in view the
The elections held to elect the members of the great impact and significance of the elections,
Lok Sabha after expiry of the normal term of five the Constitution has made detailed provisions
years are called the General Elections. Elections for the free and fair conduct of elections in Part
to some State Legislative Assemblies may be held XV, Articles 324 to 329.
Differences Between Direct and Indirect Elections
Elections 161
Direct Elections Indirect Elections
1. People vote directly to elect their representatives. 1. People elect their representatives
indirectly through their elected
representatives. For example, members of Rajya Sabha are elected
by the elected members of State Legislative Assemblies. 2. Law regulates the qualifications, age, etc. of voters and establishes
eligibility requirements for state officials.
2. Al elected representatives are treated at par. There are no further
qualifications. Eligibility requirement for State officials is similar to
that in the direct elections.
3. Every adult person holds the right to vote. 3.
4. There is a very large body of voters caled the electorate. Every elected representative holds
the right to vote.
4. There is a very smal body of voters.
. Members of Legislative Assemblies and members of Lok Sabha are
elected directly.
The Members of state Legislative councils, Members of Rajya Sabha,
the president of India and the Vice President are elected indirectly.
COMPOSITION OF THE ELECTION COMMISSION
Article 324, Clauses 1 to 6 deal with the
composition of t h e Election Commission
and other related issues. The Chief Election
Commissioner (CEC) stands at the top in
the hierarchy of the Election Commission.
The Election Commission consists of a Chief
Election Commissioner and other Election
Commissioners.
F r o m 1950 to 1989 t h e Election Commission
was a single member Constitutional body. In
1989, the Election Commission was made a multi-member body. Two more Commissioners
w e r e a p p o i n t e d a n d t h e C h i e f E l e c t i o n
Commissioner was designated as the Chairman
of the Commission. Thus, at present the Election
C o m m i s s i o n consists of three members.
The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and
the other Commissioners are appointed by the
President of India. This is done at the behest of
the Prime Minister as per Article 74. The Regional
Election Commissioners are also appointed by
the President in consultation with the Election
Commission. m u w t a d o m i t
SYLLABUS
Local Self-Government-Rural
Rural : Three-tier system of Panchayati
Raj- Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti,
Zila Parishad their meaning and functions.
Ve have the Central Government to look after
he interests of the whole country, while we
a v e S t a t e G o v e r n m e n t s
m a n a g e S t a t e
dministration. At the local level, we have Local
elf-Government, which manages local affairs,
hrough the representatives of the locality. Local Self-Government has thus become an integral
art of the three-tier system of the Government.
LEANING OF LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT
ocal self-government is an institution comprising
ocally elected representatives managing the
affairs of the locality and providing them with
basic amenities. In a r u r a l area s u c h a n
nstitution is called Panchayat and in an urban
Local Self-Government
nayat
functions which are aimed at decentralisation
of political power.
1. Administrative Functions
(i) All public works and public welfare
functions like construction, repair and
maintenance of village roads, cart tracks,
bridges, drains, tanks and wells.
(ii) Upkeep of cremation and burial grounds.
iii) Sanitation, health, setting up of health
centres and dispensaries.
(iv) Providing primary education.
(v) Arranging irrigation facilities, seeds,
fertilisers.
(vi) Registration of births and deaths. (vii) Maintaining records of common village
property, their sale and purchase and land
grants.
2. Social and Economic Functions
These functions are not obligatory and can be
performed according to the availability of funds.
These functions include:
(i) Construction of guest houses, libraries,
marriage halls, etc;
(ii) Organising regular village melas, fairs
and exhibitions;
(ini) Planting of trees, parks, gardens and
playgrounds for recreation;
(iv) Establishing fair price shops, Cooperative
Credit Societies.
3 . Judicial Functions
These are discussed under Nyaya Panchayats.
Local Self-Government-Rural 169
NYAYA PANCHAYATS
Nyaya Panchayat also called Panchayati Adalat is
set up for every three or four Gram Panchayats.
d I S t
These Panchayats exist only in some States
and perform judicial functions. The chief characteristics of Nyaya Panchayats are the
following:
(i) They ensure quick and inexpensive justice
to villagers.
(ii) They can impose a fine of up to Rs. 100.
(iti) They cannot award a sentence of
imprisonment.
Panchayat Samiti Office, Dahanu
(iv) Lawyers are not allowed to appear before
these Panchayats.
(v) There is generally no appeal against
(ii) Members of Parliament belonging to the
the decision of a Nyaya Panchayat if
the powers are exercised within their
jurisdiction.
(iv) Block Development Officers of the block or the area served by them.
(vi) However, under the Panchayats Act, Sub-
(v) Co-opted members (provisional)
divisional Magistrates and Sub-Judges
representing women, Scheduled Castes/
of the District are empowered to hear
Tribes.
appeals.
(vi) Representatives of Cooperative Societies (vii) No person can be a member of the Nyaya
(only in certain States).
Panchayat and the Panchayat Samiti,
Gram Panchayat or other local self-
The Samiti appoints various Standing
governing body at the same time.
Commitees to undertake specialised works.
These committees may have outside members
(viii) The state government or the State Judicial
as well.
Service decides the jurisdiction of these
Panchayats.
F r o m t h e above a c c o u n t it c a n be stated
Office Bearers Chairperson-elected from amongst its own
that Gram Sabha acts as a General Body as well
members.
as legislature, the Panchayat as the Executive
Deputy Chairperson- elected from amongst
and Nyaya Panchayat as the Judicial Body for
its own members.
a village or a group of such villages.
Secretary A salaried employee appointed
PANCHAYAT SAMITI (AT THE
by the State authorities through District Administration.
BLOCK LEVEL)
This intermediate body at the block level is
known by different names in different states,
like Panchayat Samiti, Kshetra Samiti, Janapada
Panchayat and Panchayat Union Council.
The Community Block is in fact Panchayat
of the Panchayats.
Composition: It has the representatives of
Panchayats and some others as its members
as given below:
(i) Sarpanchs of all Panchayats concerned.
(ii) Members of Legislative Assembly of the
S t a t e f r o m t h e a r e a .
FUNCTIONS
(i) To supervise and coordinate the working
of Gram Panchayats.
(ii) To conduct higher education (higher
secondary level and above) for a group
of villages or at block level.
(iii) To provide hospital and health services
with various facilities at community block
level.
(iv) To pay special attention to development of agriculture through undertaking minor
irrigation schemes, distribution of quality
seeds and fertilisers.
Total History and Civics-IX
1 7 0
(v) To approve building plans, undertake
other development works including roads
and bridges within the circle Panchayats.
(vi) To provide drinking water and execute other
community development programmes.
(vi) To act as a link between the Gram
Panchayat and Zila Parishad.
coordinate the functions of circle Panchayats.
Functions vary from State to State. These
functions generally pertain to the following:
(i) Overseeing all-round development work
of the district under the overall charge
of an experienced functionary like the
ULA PARISHAD (AT DISTRICT LEVEL)
At the apex of the three-tier Panchayati Raj
system lies the Zila Parishad. It is a local self-
government unit at district level. Panchayat
Samit forms a link between the Gram Panchayat
and Zila Parishad. The link between the State Government and the Gram Panchayats is the
Zila Parishad.
The Zila Parishad is also known by
different names in different States, like District
Development Council, Zila Parishad and
Mohkuma Parishad.
Deputy Commissioner.
i) The Standing Committees have each a
Chairperson, and Deputy Chairperson,
holds discussions and take decisions.
Members of the District Boards are also
included in the Standing Committee.
(i) In practice, the Working Committee
functions as the executive body of the
District Board.
(iv) Supervision of working of Panchayats is
carried out.
(v) In some states like in Assam, Bihar and
Punjab scrutiny of the budget estimates
of Panchayat Samitis is done.
(vi) It cooperates with and coordinates the
COMPOSITION
work of Panchayat Samitis for undertaking
The membership varies from 40 to 60 and various development works specially
usually comprises - Deputy Commissioner of
the District, Presidents of all Panchayat Samitis
minor irrigation works, vocational and
in the district and Heads of all Government industrial schools, village industries,
sanitation and public health.
Departments in the district; Members of (vii) It advises the State Government on all
Parliament and Legislative Assembly in the matters relating to the Gram Panchayats
district (as Associate Members in some States);
a representative of each cooperative society (only
and Panchayat Samitis under their own
jurisdiction.
in some States); some women and Scheduled
Caste members if not adequately represented; ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE
and Co-opted members having extraordinary PANCHAYATI RAJ SYSTEM
experience and achievements in public service.
Gandhiji's dream of every village being a
O f f i c e B e a r e r s republic has been translated into reality with
Chairman: Presides over the meetings and the introduction of the three-tier Panchayati
conduct proceedings. Elected by members from Raj System.
amongst themselves. The Ministry of Rural Development gives
Deputy Chairperson: Elected by members training to the members of the Panchayats
amongst themselves.
at all levels in order to implement the rural Secretary: A whole time paid employee of the development programmes under schemes such
state government.
as Swarnajayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana
FUNCTIONS (SGSY). The Panchayati Raj system has, thus,
brought government close to people.
The Zila Parishad as seen from its composition is
(a) The Central government has started the
like a regular official body rather than a popular
process of digitisation of over 2.5 l a k h
one. It functions mostly through various Standing
Gram Panchayats across the country. Under
Committees. There are District Boards who
this, all Gram Panchayats will be converted
Local Self-Government-Rural
1 7 1
Village Panchayat
Structure of Village Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti and Zila Parishad
Deputy Commissioner, Heads
of government departments.
Level
Structure of VillVillage
District
BDOs and Chairmen of all
Panchayat Samitis, MPs C o m p o s i t i o n
President
Functions
i o n
VC o n s i s t s of m i n i m u m and maximum 31 members
directly elected by Gram
S a b h a .
5
Sarpanch
Provision of civic amenities,
looking after sanitation,
m a n a g e m e n t o f p r o p e r t y, provision of
c o m m primary education and
o n
primary health centres.
P a n c h a y a t S a m i t i
Block/Circle
S a r p a n c h s of Village
and iMPs belonging to that area,
members of t h e Zila Parishad
and Block Development
Officer.
Panchayats, MLAs C h a i r m a n
Coordination of the working of various Panchayats under
it.
rmPs
acolleges.
Maintenance of hospitals and
o t h e r Management of schools h e a l t h services.
Help in the development of
agriculture.
of civiMLAs belonging to that
district.
and
Chairman
Coordination of the working
of Panchayat Samitis under
it.
Recommendation for grants-
in-aid for local bodies.
Help i n the formulation of
and
various plans.
Act as a link between the
government and the local
bodies.
Zila Parishad to 'digital' Panchayats to provide speedy
delivery of government services and welfare
schemes to people in rural areas.
As a part of the Digital India program, the
G o v e r n m e n t of I n d i a h a s s t a r t e d t h e e G r a m
Swaraj, a user-friendly web-based portal.
It is a step towards complete digitisation
of villages and will maintain all records of
developmental activities of villages and will
be accessible on mobile phones.
(b) Panchayati Raj system ensures effective
c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n g o v e r n m e n t
programmes and those of voluntary agencies.
(c) The District Rural Development Agencies
(DRDAs) in close cooperation with Zila
Parishads release funds to Gram Panchayats
under the Jawahar Gram Samridhi Yojana
(JGSY). Its main objective is to create demand
driven village infrastructure. JGSY is now
implemented through Panchayats all over
the country. The Mahatma Gandhi National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005,
provides every rural household 100 days
of work in a year which involves unskilled m a n u a l work. G r a m Panchayat is the
implementing agency of this scheme.
Local Self-Governn
-Urban
SYLLABUS
Local Self-Government-Urban
Urban: Municipal Committees and Municipal
Corporations- meaning and functions.
An urban area is regarded as one which is a town
or a city, has minimum population of 5000 and
at least 75 per cent of its population should be
engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. A town is
generally regarded as a smaller urban area. Large
towns are called cities. According to the Census
Commission, cities with a population of more
than 40 lakh are known as metropolitan cities.
The local self-government institutions in all these
areas function independent of one another.
MUNICIPAL CORPORATION
Municipal Corporation is a local self-government
unit in big cities.
The Municipal Corporation carries out its
f u n c t i o n s through well organised divisions
or departments. For example, Water Supply a n d Sewage Disposal Undertaking, Housing
Board, Education Department and Electricity
D e p a r t m e n t . E a c h of t h e s e d e p a r t m e n t s a r e
l o o k e d a f t e r by e x p e r i e n c e d a n d qualified
p e r s o n s .
S
1
n
t e
1s
1 e
1f-
a l l
t h e
n t o
o r y
functions and discretionary or optional functions
(functions depending on availability of funds).
1 . Compulsory Functions: These include:
(i) Provision of electricity, water, sewage
disposal. These functions are carried
through various departments which have
the services of experts and engineers who
are appointed as full time employees of the Corporation.
(ii) Provision of public health services like
provision of hospitals, dispensaries, family
welfare centres. It has to organise and
carry on special public health measures to
prevent spread of communicable diseases.
Removal and disposal of garbage, dealing
with other city wastes a r e priority
functions. The Corporation appoints its
own staff to carry on these functions.
(iii) Provision of public conveniences and
utilities like roads, buildings, bus-shelters,
demolition of dangerous structures,
plantation of trees, provision of public
u r i n a l s a n d toilets.
(iv) Provision of educational institutions like
primary and secondary schools including
organisation of adult literacy classes,
organising and undertaking promotion of
sports and games and providing necessary
facilities.
(v) Maintenance of records of births a n d
deaths and maintenance and upkeep of
cremation and burial grounds. (vi) Undertaking of public safety and security
like maintenance of fire department
together with fire engines; disaster like
floods and earthquake management
groups etc.
(vii) Preparation, publishing and issuing
of annual report of the Corporation
stating its various activities, projects and
programmes
2. Discretionary or Optional Functions:
These include the following:
(i) Public housing through housing boards.
(ii) Construction and maintenance of public
parks, libraries, museums, theatre,
akharas, picnic resorts etc.
(iii) Establishing and maintaining children's
homes, orphanages, old-age homes, night
s h e l t e r s a n d r e s t h o u s e s .
(iv) Undertaking welfare schemes, organising
fares, functions, melas.
(v) Beautification of city.
Municipal Councils and Municipal
Corporations are constituted in smaller urban
areas and larger urban areas respectively. The Governor of a state determines the a r e a s for
different forms of u r b a n bodies b a s e d o n the
population of the area, density of population,
revenue generated by the local body, percentage
of employment in non-agricultural activities and
other factors.
MUNICIPAL C O M M I T T E E
A Municipal Committee is set up for smaller
towns. Such bodies are also called Municipal
Boards or Municipalities. Their organisation is
more or less similar to Municipal Corporation.
Due to their smaller size these have generally
Municipal Corporation constructs and
maintains roads and flyovers
Total History and Civics-IX