I've summarized all of the content from my memory videos into this revision video if you don't understand any of the content I cover here go to my longer videos for a full explanation but if you just need a reminder of the key points quickly this is the video for you but don't just use this video I've got a psych boost app and it's designed to test your knowledge of all the topics in alevel Psychology actively using flash cards it's on IOS and Android and you can use it for all of paper one for free if instead you want tutorial support videos with questions from all free papers you can access over 16 hours of these as well as hundreds of printable resources over on my patreon but enough of that let's get started the multistore model of memory Atkinson and shiffrin 1968 a theoretical cognitive model of how the memory system processes information first store sensory register receiv receives raw sense Impressions attention passes info to short-term memory coding is modality specific capacity is very large all sense impressions in each moment duration very short 250 milliseconds but varies per store second store short-term memory receives info from the center register by paying attention or from long-term memory by retrieval keeps information in short-term memory by repeating maintenance rehearsal or passing information on to long-term memory by linking it to the info already in longterm memory labure rehearsal coding is acoustic the duration is approximately 18 seconds capacity is seven plus or minus 2 items Miller information in shortterm memory is lost by displacement new information enters short-term memory or Decay lost over time Third Store long-term memory very long duration permanent memory storage theoretically unlimited capacity forgotten information appears to just be unaccessible long-term memory is coded semantically in the form of meaning to use the information it must be passed back to short-term memory retrieval evaluations STM and LTM are set Glaser and Kunitz found words at the start and end of word lists were more easily recalled Primacy and recency effect suggest the first words in long-term memory and last in short-term memory however the middle words were displaced capacity and duration of the Sens register spling found the recall of a random row of a 12l grid flashed for 120th of a second was 75% suggest all the rows were stored in centry register a large capacity all 12 could not be written as items were forgotten too quickly so a short duration coding STM and LTM badly four 10w lists were given to four participant groups word list were acoustically similar or dissimilar and semantically similar or dissimilar found immediate recall was worse for acoustically similar words and recall after 20 minutes but worse was semantically similar suggest short-term memory is coded acoustically and long-term memory is coded semantically with similar sounds or meanings causing confusion when recalled capacity short-term memory Jacobs found that recall for list of letters average seven items for letters and nine for numbers suggests a shter memory store has a limited capacity of 7 plus orus 2 however this can be improved by chunking making small sets groups of items duration shter memory Peterson and Peterson found recall of a freeletter trigram HFR TKD was less than 10% after 18 seconds if performing an interference task counting backwards suggesting shortterm memory duration is very short 18 to 30 seconds Max Capacity long-term memory Wagner created a diary 240 events over 6 years he tested himself on events using q's and found 75% recall for critical details after 1 year and 45% after 5 years suggests long-term memory has a very large capacity potentially Limitless duration long-term memory barck found recall of school friends names from photographs was 90% after 15 years and still 80% for names after 48 years in participants ranging from 17 to 74 suggest the duration of long-term memory is very long potentially Limitless cognitive tests of mes of memory like the MSM are often highly artificial low mundane realism and they conduct in lab environments low eological ability it may be that the findings do not generalize to how memory is used in day-to-day life there are different types of long-term memory not one and the working memory model explains STM as a much more active system with multiple stores the capacity of the short-term memory store can be altered significantly for example age and practice suggests the view of a fix short-term memory capacity is incorrect types of long-term memory long-term memory is the storage of memories over a lengthy period of time it's suggested that there are three times of long-term memory these are either declarative explicit meaning you can access them consciously and express the memory in words or non declarative this means they're not consciously recalled they're implicit and are difficult to explain in words episodic experiences and events they're timestamped so they have a reference of time and place they are declarative they recall consciously they're autobiographical the strength of the memory is influenced by emotion and it's associated with the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex semantic facts meanings and knowledge it's declarative and recall consciously the strength of the memory comes from the processing down it lasts longer than episodic it's not timestamped and episodic becomes semantic over time associated with the frenal cortex procedural unconscious memories of skills like riding a bike often learn in childhood not declarative not recalled consciously more resistant to getting the episodic or semantic associated with the motor cortex and cerebellum evaluations vagara Kadeem found free children with damage to the hippocampus but not the par hippocampal cores had episodic Amnesia but attended School spoke and learned facts semantic info this suggests semantic and abic memory use different brain regions Clive wearing has retrograde amnesia so we can't remember his musical education or wedding episodic however he remembers facts about his life semantic for example he knows he's a musician and married he can play the piano procedural due to anterior grade Amnesia he can't encode new episodic or semantic memories what can gain new procedural memories in experiments VI repetition this suggests semantic episodic and procedural memory are separate using different brain areas generalizing the findings of idiographic clinical case studies to explain how memory Works in The Wider population is problematic other unknown issues could be unique to that individual that can explain the behavior toling eor studies identified which types of long-term memory are associated with particular brain areas in healthy brains this has allowed ideas gained from idiographic case studies to be studied via ntic methods types of long-term memory may not be truly distinct episodic and semantic memories are both declarative episodic become semantic over time and we can produce automatic language combining semantic and procedural the working memory model badan hitch 1974 a theoretical conter model of information processing created to replace the STM store in the MSM the working memory model is an active processor made of multiple stores whereas the STM is a passive and unitary store Central executive the head of the model receiv receives sense information controls attention and filters information before passing on to The subsystems Limited in capacity four items and capable of dealing with only one Str strand of information at a time subsystems the phological loop processes sound information acoustic coding contains the primary acoustic store the inner rear storing words recently heard under ulatory process the inner voice storing via subvocal repetition capacity of 2 seconds the VIS spatial sketch pad processes so codes Visual and spatial information contains the visual cache a passive store of form and color and the in ascribe an inner eye an active store of relationships in 3D space the episodic buffer added to the working memory mod in 2000 as a model needed a general store to hold and combine information from the vsss the pl the CE and long-term memory evaluations badly when asked to do two visual tasks tracking moving lights and describing the angles of the letter F or a visual and verbal task it was found that performance was much better when the two tasks were not using the same processing this that the vsss and pl are separate systems and the capacity of the vsss can be overwhelmed with visual information shis and warington after a brain injury KF had selective impairment to his verbal shter memory but visual functioning was not affected this suggests that the pl and vsss subsystems are separate processes located in separate brain regions parakan participants in fmis complete tasks with integrated or separate spatial and verbal information more activation was found in the prefontal cortex when information is integrated and in posterior brain regions when not integrated this suggests the episodic buffer exists and is in the prefrontal cortex badly found participants could recall more monosyllabic words sure Than polyic Words long this suggests the capacity of the phological loop is the time it takes to say the words approximately 2 seconds known as the word length effect the working memory model seems more accurate than the short-term memory component of the MSN in describing how memory is used as an active processor psychologists often now refer to working memory instead of short-term memory in most studies on memory tasks there are issues with external validity they lack mundane realism as the tasks are unrealistic artificial therefore they may not be generalized to how we use memory in day-to-day life other psychologists have criticized the central executive as a concept that does not have a full explanation of its function badly admits that the concept needs development and including the episodic buffer is part of this it's impossible to directly observe the process of memory described in the models like the working memory model this means inferences must be made which are assumptions about conni processes these assumptions could be incorrect hey there I should still watching I'm guessing you'll find this video useful as I release content right up to the exams don't forget to subscribe so you know when new videos are uploaded also as this video is being released I'm on around 50,000 subscribers and I'd love to get to 100K at some point in the next few years explanations for forgetting interference interference Theory we forget because our long-term memories become confused disrupted by other information while it's coded proactive interference old information disrupts new interference Works forward in time when old information already stored interferes recalling something new retroactive interference new information disrupts old interference Works backwards in time new information being stored interferes with the call of old info similarity interference is more likely to occur when the two pieces of information are similar due to response competition time sensitivity interference is less likely to occur when there's a large gap between learning retrieval failure due to the absence of cues Q dependent forgetting information is in long-term memory but forgetting happens due to the absence of appropriate cues prompts encoded at the same time encoding specificity principle context dependent cues aspects of our external environment work as cues to memory sight sound smells being in a different place inhibits memory as we lack environmental cues State dependent cues aspects of our internal environment work as cues to memory emotions drugs states of arousal being in a different emotional state inhibits memory as we lack State dependent cues category or organizational depending cues providing cues that relate to the organization or category of memories age recall the most effective cues have fewer things associated with them the lack of organization cues inhibits memory evaluations interference retroactive interference Smith send a questionnaire to 2011 11 to 79 year olds included a map of the area around their school without street names found the more times an individual moved home the fewer street names could be recalled suggesting adding new street names to memory makes recalling old street names harder retroactive interference proactive interference Greenberg and Underwood participants were given a list of 10 word pairs to learn every 48 Hours given a new list it was found the number of correctly recalled word pairs decreased the more word pairs had been learned previously this suggests the previously learn word combinations cause confusion in the coding of the later word lists proactive interference interference only explains forgetting when two sets of information are similar and one learn closer together in time time sensitivity this means the the struggles to explain many day examples of forgetting Q dependent forgetting context dependent cues G and badly material learn underwater or on land found Reco was best with divers if they'd learn in the same context environment as tested suggesting environmental cues promote recall State depending cues Overton material learn drunk or sober found recall was best when the same internal State suggests internal cues promote recall category dependent cues toing and pearstone participants used free recall answering in any order to recall 48 words or were asked to recall to match 12 forward categories it was found participants record significantly more in the category condition this suggests the categories acted as qes and AED recall as interference in Q fairy may only explain a temporary loss of information not a permanent loss they may not be a valid explanation for forgetting Research into forgetting is practical applications students can develop a effective revision strategies and theories like context cues and Bri recall have been used in the development of an effective police technique called the cognitive interview factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony bartler argued memory is not an accurate recording of events it's reconstructed in recalling reconstructive memory and may produce errors confabulations that schemas influence leading questions imply a particular answer this can influence how memory is recalled either due to an actual change to the memory substitution bias or due to an emotional pressure to give a particular response response bias post-event contamination discussion the recall of events by one witness Alters the accuracy of another witness's recollection this could be Memory Conformity the witnesses go along with others accounts the social approval anxiety a mental state of arousal that includes feelings of extreme concern and tension and physiological changes such as increased heart rate high anxiety levels May decrease recall due to weapons effect focus with Witnesses focusing their attention on the weapon rather than the criminal's face high anxiety levels may increase recall as it improves alertness and awareness of the situation and surroundings Additionally the intense emotions fell could improve memory encoding JK's Dodson law of arousal eyewitness teson accuracy increases as anxiety Rises as a witness becomes alert however at Point anxiety becomes too high and more stress distraction results in lower accuracy evaluations misleading information lot some Palmer after watching a clip of a car crash participants were asked how fast were the cars going when they blank into each other with the verb either smashed cided bumped hit or contacted it was found the more extreme the verb the faster the estimation of Miles hour contacted 31.8 and smashed 40.8 this suggests leading questions influence recall post-event discussion gab perss of participants watched different videos of the same crime it was found when perss were able to discuss what they seen 71% included information that was not in their video in their eyewitness testimony this suggests that witnesses will change their accounts of crimes to match other Witnesses testimony Bodner found that when participants were warned about the danger of post-event discussion Witnesses changed their eyewitness tesy less violent crimes cause high anxiety in eyewitnesses lab-based research in eyewitness testimony that has no emotional impact on the participants can be argued to have low validy when applied to real eyewitness testimony anxiety Johnson and Scott naive participants overheard one a normal conversation a man walks out with greasy hands and a pan or two hostile conversation breaking glass Furniture knocked over a man walked out with bloody knife found 49% identified the man from 50 photos with a pen 33% with a knife this suggests participants weapon Focus due to anxiety caused by the knife uville and cutel fan went interviewed four months after witnessing a real life deadly shooting 13 Witnesses resisted misleading information and those with the most stress closest to the shooter produced the most accurate eyewitness testimony research on the limitations of eyewitness tesy has led to real life applications one example is the development of the cognitive interview this technique is designed to reduce the influence of schemas on the accuracy of recall lab-based eyewitness tests me or leading question research may suffer from demand characteristics participants pick up on the language used and feel social pressure to give an answer they think will help the researcher response bias explanation research that deceived participants and causes anxiety breaks ethical guidelines protection from harm and informed consent improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony eyewitness tesy is inaccurate numerous research studies have indicated that eyewitness tesy lacks accuracy due to factors such as anxiety leading questions and post-event contamination Fisher defined the standard interview from observations of police interviews in Florida police ask quick direct and Clos questions police let the recall Witnesses couldn't talk freely and were frequently interrupted Fisher and Gelman suggested the cognitive interview as an improvement context reinstatement mentally returning to the crime scene triggers environmental emotional contextual cues report everything all details even if they seem irrelevant should be mentioned recall from a changed perspective consider the perspective of other Witnesses the perpetrators to disrupt schema recall in reverse order switch to different chronology timelines to check the accurac of recall and challenge expectations evaluations fer seven detectives trained in the cognitive interview were compared with nine detectives using the standard interview found cognitive interview detectives produce 47% more information in real interviews after their training and 63% more information than the standard interview detectives this suggests a ctive interview effectively enhances the memory of Witnesses in the real world conin a metanalysis of 42 cognitive interview studies including over 25 00 interviews found a significant increase in the amount of correct information recalled however a significant increase in the amount of incorrect information recall result in a similar accuracy rate of 85% for the cognitive interview and 82% for the standard interview this suggests that the cognitive interview may be of limited practical use due to increased errors Min andb found each aspect of the cognitive interview produces similar level of recall however the context reinstatement and report everything conditions produce significantly more correct recall call this suggests no one aspect is more important in the cognitive interview but the effect of the cognitive interview is cumulative the cognitive interview is time consuming requiring more work than officers have available the cognitive in also requires significant training and investment diverting officers from their normal work the cognitive interview may not be adopted due to limited Financial Resources a cost benefit analysis May argue that the cognitive interview is worth the additional resources invested in training to make a more effective police force with a interview ultimately reducing crime and its cost abroad the society the cognitive interview is not effective in improving the recognition of suspects in identity parades and from photographs this means a cognitive interview has limited usefulness in several everyday police activities involving IA testimony the cognitive interview is not effective of very young children as they're egocentric they only see the world from their own perspective holiday created a modified cognitive interview adapted to Children's developmental level don't forget you can test yourself on the memory unit with the psych boost app all of the topics in paper one are free and you can get it on iOS or Android if you want to see model answers to memory questions or access my other resources there's also patreon speaking of patreon I do want to thank all of my patrons for their support with the help of all of these students and teachers I'm able to teach part-time so I can work on the main mission of Psych boost the development of a free to watch and hopefully high quality a level psychology course and a special thank you to cat posnik and am Rani for supporting at the developer level so thanks to them good luck to you your vision and I'll see you in the next psych Boost video