the collision of cultures and this unit of study the united states history will understand how the age of exploration impacted europe the americas and africa focus questions to consider why were there so many diverse societies in the americas before the europeans arrive two what major developments in europe enabled the age of exploration three how did the spanish conquer and colonize the americas four how did the colombian exchange between the old and new worlds affect both societies and five and what ways did the spanish form of colonization shape north american history early cultures in america the first sellers the americas were nomadic and followed the herds of animals that they hunted as the game moved south so did the hunters populating the land as they traveled early american indian groups were diverse but most of them seem to have been hunter-gatherer societies their presence in north america combined with changing climates impacted the mammal population by around 7000 bc many american societies turned to farming with either a more permanent or semi-permanent resident structure other groups remain hunter-gatherers or semi-nomadic societies government impacted these decisions as detribe trade routes and communication with other groups maize corn beans and squash were the primary food groups for many of these societies but they also grew a large variety of other crops depending on their region the mayas incas and mexico a fresco depicting the social divisions of the mayan society a mayan priest at the center is ceremonially dressed permanent farming towns emerged in mexico around 1 500 bc populated by the mayans the mayan culture eventually collapsed around ad900 probably due to a variety of factors one which was their impact on the ecosystem the dominance of the mayans in mesoamerica was replaced by the toltecs whose power in the region diminished around aed 1200 the incas the eco empire named for their leader or inca in the andes mountains of the western south america made up a realm about 2500 miles by the 15th century creating a highly centralized state with cusco that is as its capital inca means ruler and then they expanded the empire divided into four quarters ruled by a governor the empire of rhodes 24 800 miles north and south of roads were built in the andes mountains farther south and present-day colombia the chicagos built an empire similar to that of the aztecs but on a much smaller scale the mexica or aztecs were known for the military prowess aztecs would capture and then sacrifice their enemies the mexica known as the europeans as aztecs moved from a place that they claimed was the original homeland astalante into central mexico by about 1325 they had taken over control of most of the area of today's central mexico and they built their largest city to notice a lot now mex mexico city this society dominated the region and all the spanish conquistadors for conquerors with their power trade connections marketplaces and buildings in addition new mexico were highly religious their polytheistic religion includes deities connected to natural elements around them such as the sun moon stars and animals the religion of the mexico and most other mesoamerican societies required the regular offering of live human sacrifices associated with elaborate rituals most of the human sacrifices were more vulnerable members of society include those captured in war slaves women and children the mexicans warfare and capture and demand for tribute and human sacrifices from those around them would help fernan cortes a spanish conquistador as meant to conquer the aztecs in 1519 north american civilization small kinships the family village and clan were the most important social group kinships such as cousins aunts and uncles were the cement which held the indian societies together creating complex social obligations these kinship bonds of the community were more binding than the nuclear family itself and indians didn't normally think of being bound to a spouse for the entire life but maintain a kinship which lasted for life so divorce did not upset the social order oral traditions their histories were not written down but passed along orally through storytelling for their religion indian religion ranged from belief in a supreme deity to pure shamanism medicine men aided the tribes with their supernatural powers most indians explain the origin and destiny of the human race through myths passed down by storytellers during religious ceremonies native american religion revolved around the assumption that all nature was alive and all in nature pulsated with a kind of a spiritual power a mysterious awe-inspiring force emunated out of all in nature which affected human life for both good and evil and this forest united all nature in an unbroken web indians pursued access to this power experience mostly through dreams and vision war among indians however was described more as a pastime than a conquering and subbing of enemies but it was the responsibility for every man in the tribe to become a warrior to protect the clan in many north american indian societies kinship ties to marriage birth or ritual adoption helped tie the clan together as bands of clans formed together tribes these kinships ties remain important for trade alliances and belonging exile from the tribe was one of the worst forms of punishment for any of these societies gender roles varied among nations but men tended to be the hunters warriors and leaders women sometimes had political power or at least to say in the leadership decisions especially the more hunting-based societies where women led in the villages while men went to haunt in general the women's roles usually included caring for raising children planting gathering harvesting and cooking food making most of the clothing blankets jewelry woven baskets and pottery that the tribe used or traded and building and packing teepees or other housing structures by the time columbus would land the population of north america was up to 10 million inhabitants three distinct civilization trends the indian civilizations in north america differed from farm communities in cities in central america they were more nomadic as the forest grasslands were not as hospitable for cultivation during this time there were three distinct periods of civilization the adena hopwell culture flourished in the midwest between 800 bc and ad600 the mississippian culture occupied the second era between ad930 and 1350. anasazi still exists and has lasted from 400 bc to the present these are the people we think of when we consider the native american society and culture the southwest vast villages were constructed into the sides of these cliffs and mesa verde like in national park in colorado when the first europeans arrived as many as 10 million native americans lived in the new world the southwestern tribes lived in the arid region that is part of the present day united states many of their descendants still live in the area today the hulkam people migrated north from today's mexico into the southwest and used irrigation to help them cultivate maize and other crops the anasazi ancient ones are the best known for these pueblo town dwelling a name given by the spanish cultures the northwest the northwestern tribes were involved in fishing whaling and sealing abundant food sources from the sea and the edible plants help make these groups dense in population without having to work as hard to cultivate them the social structure was divided into leaders chiefs commoners and slaves who are usually captains of war the three largest tribes were the haida kwarakutu and the nucca the plains indians lived on the great plains of north america principally nomadic their seasonal migration patterns generally followed the great herds of bison provided them their primary sustenance medina hopewell and later mississippian societies were set apart by the religious and burial mountain building the adena and hopwell societies developed in the ohio river valley region in a period around 600 bc to 200 a.d the mississippian culture developed in the area east of the mississippi river during the period of 800 to 1500 these cultures developed trade networks across much of north america and the gulf of mexico to present day canada and from the atlantic ocean to the rocky mountains chokaya was built near the confluence of the missouri and the mississippi rivers in present-day southwest illinois across from st louis it was the largest of the mississippi admit settlements with a population around 15 000 people at its height the farming and trading community built large mounds with temples on top around 1300 the people of chicoya dispersed and the settlement was abandoned the eastern woodland tribes were composed of three regional groups the algal queen the iroquois and the muskean each of these had subgroups within them primarily they were fishers and hunters with some rudimentary farming as well the alagaquins were the first societies europeans encountered in north america this group lived in the area from along the new england atlantic seaboard to the great lakes as well as in today's upper midwest and south into today's new jersey virginia and the carolinas the iroquoian extended their territory from the formation of the iroquois league and became the major arrival of the alan clintons they tended to live in the west and the south of the applicants the eastern woodland indians generally spoke the muskegon language and lived along the gulf of mexico and other southeast portions of today's united states european visions of america before 1400 the catholic church was the only unifying force after rome's fall in 476. the church preserved learning education and art europe looked to the church for unity and stability people in europe lived under feudalism which was a political system which he looked to one person to protect you a lord or a knight who was trained in return for protection you paid them a part of everything you produce kind of like a tax this was during the middle ages it was a relatively stable area because not one strong nation government existed this of course would change with the crusades in an effort of christian europe to take jerusalem back from the muslims the crusades from the 10th and 12th centuries opened the eyes of many to a different culture in different products and laid the foundation for a reawakening feudal society crumbled as new structures of society develop resulting in exploration discovery and immigration with the growth of commerce discovering new goods from the far east such as beautiful tapestries spices for preserving food and flavoring of monotonous foods drugs for healing silks and new foods that returning crusaders either bought back or talked about created demands that were huge for such products new trade routes developed to meet these demands and to lower the cost of the goods as trade expanded new sources of gold were sought to pay for these goods this brought about the growth of cities the concentration of capital produced urban centers and strong emerging banking families like the meta cheese in italy to control the money flow into an area new alliances resulted between the wealthy banking and the ruling families the rise of commerce and the resultant collection of capital created an access to capital which ruling families made available increasingly for exploration and possible colonization which brought about capitalism finally was political changes in europe resulting in consolidation of powerful monarchies which could mobilize natural resources for the development of empire with spain leading the way early european states were smaller five dumps ruled over by an individual noble man eventually these gave laid to larger kingdoms ruled by a stronger noble man a king and sometimes a queen such combination of kingdoms was always at the expense of the nobility the early nation states were portugal spain as a result of marriage of ferdinand of aragon and isabella castille and the conquering of the moors in 1492 england with the house of tudor the result of the marriage of elizabeth of york and henry viii of lancaster and finally france the house of eloy which would be replaced by the house of vermont the renaissance was appearing to rebirth for rediscovery of ancient greek and roman arts writings and ways of thinking although the renaissance did not teach all parts of europe equally the new pattern of thinking that resulted especially the emphasis on humanism helped shape decisions among the intellectual and economic elites the desire to better understand the world in humans ability to shape it accelerating the age of discovery for europe the 15th century was also an agent technological advancement the acceptance of the compass the astrologe allowed for more accurate maps to spur the development of trade and the rise of trade fostered the growth of towns and the creation of larger ships to carry products the tools and navigation that would help in the age of the discovery caravals or ships that sailors could travel on faster and longer distance by sailing into the wind the astrologe was used by astronomers and navigators to measure the altitude above the horizon of a celestial body day or night it can be used to identify stars or planets to determine local latitude given local time and vice versa to survey or to triangulate arabs use them to cross the desert so why not oceans the compass points to the magnetic north gives degrees and one could still a specific point for example 270 degrees due west the hourglasses need to help keep the correct time to correlate with the use of the astrologe and the cross staff the cross staff was used to determine angles for instance the angle between the horizon and polaris or the sun to determine a vessel's latitude or the angle between the top and the bottom of an object to determine the distance of sid object if its height is no or the height of the object of the distance as no or the horizontal angle between the two visible locations to determine one's point on the map finally the log a paddle that was the end of the line the line was tied to a series of knots the log was thrown out in time for 30 seconds the sailor then would reel in the log and count the number of knots the ship was going hence came nautical miles the rise of global trade land-based trade across europe asia and africa was well established by 1500 prior to the 15th century shipping trade was expensive and dangerous very few people had the money to pay for such shipping and even fewer were willing to risk it on such a venture with the crusades from 1096 to 1270 christian army's trying to rescue the holy land from muslims europeans acquire a taste for spices like nutmeg cinnamon cloves and pepper and the nobles begin to lose power portugal and spain increasingly looked to the atlantic ocean the african coast and indies for trade opportunities in 1419 henry the navigator established a maritime school sponsored trips to africa in 1441 the first africans were brought to europe as slaves within several years thousands of slaves were shipped to lisbon nation states with international banking and corporations emerging joint stock companies which finance exploration the rise of the nation-states and the consolidation of empires under centralized rulers allow for the creation of uniformed currency within the area trade reform and the abolition of trade graves it also created vast sums of wealth that could be used to finance sea trade england france portugal and spain began to emerge as nation states during these periods columbus was an italian who was educated seamanship in portugal he persuaded king ferdinand and queen isabella of spain to finance his trip across the atlantic ocean searching for a western passage to asia the voyage began on august 3rd 1492 columbus and his crew set sail with three ships the famous santa maria the pinta and the nina they sighted land on october 12th and landed in the bahamas and other islands in the caribbean columbus was convinced that he had landed at an island off the coast of asia but he certainly met some people known as tanyos in the caribbean island he mistakenly thought they were from asia and named them indians and the name would stick there were four voyages that columbus would undertake the first one he would also explore the bahamas before discovering and exploring cuba after exploring hispaniola santo domingo the flagship was wrecked and a post was established at la navidad because it happened on christmas day men were left behind when he returned home by 15th march after stopping the azores in a lisbon in a second voyage that set out on september 25th 1493 to june 11 1496 sailing from cadiz with 17 ships and 1200 men including his brother diego when columbus returned to navidad on november 27 1493 he found it burned to the ground nobody in the vicinity in the fields nearby however he discovered the bodies of eight christians he abandoned the area and explored the leeward islands in puerto rico before discovering the destruction of the original post a second post was established at isabella on january 2nd 1494 on santo domingo additional exploration occurred on central domingo jamaica and hispaniola isabella was abandoned in the city of santa domingo was established in 1496. columbus left a second brother bartholomew and charged the island before returning to spain on march 10 1496 arriving to cadiz on june the 11th his third voyage is set out on may 30th 1498 to 25 november 1500 this time with seven ships columbus left for santa demigo dividing his fleet at the canaries he cited south america before arriving at census of diego on 31 august the colony was in a state of rebellion spain's new governor francisco de babadila arrived on 23rd august and sent three brothers columbus to spain and chains in october although restored to their honors they never regained their authority which was retained by the spanish crown his final voyage from may 1502 to november of 1504 he only had four ships and he left the ds and landed at martinique on june 15th he later sailed to honduran coast and explored to the south as far as central panama he was shipwrecked and ruined in jamaica for 12 months before he was finally rescued and returned home thanks columbus's voyages helped spain claim jurisdiction over the americas from the european perspective this right was contested by other emerging western european nation states but was confirmed by pope alexander vi had the treated tortillas in 1494 which was signed by the pope spain and portugal this gave spain claims over the non-christian portions of the western hemisphere and portugal claims or the non-christian portions in the eastern hemisphere the demarcation line moved the dividing line 100 leagues west which eventually gave portugal claim over what would become brazil which pedro cabral in 1500 accidentally discovered for portugal portugal's controlled the time of the african slave trade made it the major provider of enslaved africans to the americas until the dutch and then the english took over the control in the 17th and 18th centuries professional explorers sponsored by nation states the new profession of professional explorers emerge by citing new lands that is those not already claimed by europeans nations could claim primacy of their soil thus making their profession very desirable john cowbett was an italian sailing for england's king henry vii in 1497 discovered a new found land which later became canada cabot's voyage later allowed england to assert its claims to all of north america political economic religious conflict in england and its closer irish colony combined with conflict with nearby france undermined further attempts at english colonization until the 1600s americo vespucci was a mapmaker name american vespucci was the first to suggest in 1499 that the new landmass encounter was too large to be an island and must be a continent america was named in his honor other european explorers such as vasco nuez de balboa explored the americas balboa became the first recorded european to see the pacific ocean from the new world in 1513 having landed at the isthmus of panama and traveling west ferdinand magellan and sebastian delcano sailed on behalf of the spanish fernand magellan's crew would be the first to circumnavigate the globe although magellan did not live to complete the voyage after magellan's death in the philippines sebastian del cano led the vastly diminished crew back along the more familiar regions of the east indies indian ocean and up to the atlantic ocean to spain only one of the five ships would return religious conflict in europe martin luther a theologian and critic of the catholic church luther is best remembered for his 95 theses an incendiary document that served as a catalyst for the protestant reformation at the same time that spain was colonizing the americas and portugal was colonizing the african coasts in southeast asia much of the rest of western europe was at war involving the protestant reformation england and france the only two other nations capable of contesting spanish settlement in the new world waged a series of wars rooted in political economic and religious conflict that occupied the majority of their time and resources martin luther began the protestant reformation by proclaiming a list of abuses of the catholic church although luther intended to begin a conversation that we had hoped to reform the catholic church is teaching sparked a religious movement that led to the establishment of a different denominations subgroups within christianity that all considered themselves to be protestants originally those who protested almost certain catholic dogmas or religious teachings john calvin's writings also changed the way christianity was preached and persuaded many people away from the document taught by the catholicism the roman catholic church resisted the emergence of these new protestant denominations this resistance towards the protestantism was called the counter refer nation the catholic church studies claim that it was the only catholic universal christian church in eastern europe the orthodox church continued to assert its own claims as a church with the correct doctrine some catholics such as ignatius de la iola sought to spread catholic teachings throughout europe the americas and elsewhere loyola established the society of jesus known as the jesuits who became known for their militant commitment and for their courage as missionaries and teachers during the period of 1545 to 1563 a special ecumenical catholic church council the council trent was held to clarify catholic doctrine and reforms reformation in england largely political reasons prompted henry viii to begin the reformation of the church of england the anglican church he wanted a divorce from his wife who was aunt to the emperor of the holy roman empire and the protector of all things catholic when the request was denied henry established himself as the head of the church and divorced her although henry viii probably used the religious tensions as excuse to increase his own authority many anglicans were sincere in the release and calvinists such as puritans sought to further purify the church of england from catholic teachings and practices after henry viii died his son edward vi became king he ruled into his death in 1553 when his catholic half-sister mary took control after deposing lady jane gray during mary's rule she attempted to re-establish catholicism as the official church of england especially after marrying philip ii the catholic holy roman emperor in king of spain in the netherlands after mary died her protestant half-sister elizabeth became queen the elizabethan age period when elizabeth ruled became known as the cultural emergence of england as a strong nation-state despite pressure pressures throughout the political and religious tensions economic problems in foreign wars this map shows further exploration by spanish conquistadors such as ponce du lan to florida cortez to mexico pizzaro to south america and the incas de soto through florida and also the southeastern part of the present-day united states and coronado in the american southwest the spanish empire spain's caribbean islands provided rich resources and trading ports cuba especially emerged as the seat of spanish power in the americas and due to the tree of torso dia spain wasted no time establishing itself in the new world and within a generation and inserted itself firmly into the civilizations there con teach the gore as a spanish word for conquerors who were professional soldiers who were recognized as the best military men in the world at the time instead of working for a regular salary they received a share in any plunder gained from conquest this helped to make him less willing to show mercy to captains or defeated enemies hernan cortez would land in mexico in 1519 with a force of 600 men 17 horses and 10 cannons cortez had several things going for him first spain had significant technological advancement over the indian tribes in mexico such as iron sail powered ships cannons and domesticated horses these often made up for the tremendously outnumbered when he landed it was reported to the emperor montezuma the gods have come back their lances spit fire their warriors have two heads and six legs and they live in houses that float second was donna marina a native american woman was his interpreter and guide throughout the aztec empire where he learned that the great king montezuma lived in a magnificent city beyond the mountains and that his armies lined up in a field would cover it like the waves of the sea but he also informed that many vassal kings who owed allegiance to the emperor secretly detested him and would ready to support anyone who might help them throw off the hatred aztec yo third he is considered by the aztecs to be an emissary or the feathered semper god katsikato or kenziconto himself legend said that this god vowed to return to destroy the aztecs the whole aztec empire was filled with foreboding as comets raced across the sky then broad daylight and fourth diseases such as smallpox which the native americans had no immunity after first defeating the natural enemies of the aztecs in 1519 and through persuasion he is able to enter the forces into tenochtillon in a peaceful manner he befriended infra montezuma and gained control of the aztecs gold and silver mines however the emperor was killed and cortez and his men had to flee for their lives when cortez returned in 1520 to 1521 he persuaded many of the aztec natural enemies to join with the conquistadors as he marched on the aztec capital city much of the empire was already devastated by european diseases which made the conquering much easier the incas had a centralized state the empire of 7 million reached over 1 000 miles along the andes mountains from present-day ecuador to chile the incas had a very efficient centralized authoritarian state controlling agriculture and commerce with a more sophisticated administrative structure than the aztecs they were good road builders and an effective communication system and skilled metallurgists their political system the monarch had absolute power and his administration by financed by complex system of taxation that acuted labor service for state-run projects in mining road building and working in special fields set aside for the royal family in exchange for their obligation to the state the inca people had access to government brainerys in times of bad harvest a type of modern welfare state one major weakness they had no fixed procedure for succession the monarch typically picked his air from the most confident of his sons which made sense but established no clear line of succession in the time of crisis like the aztecs the incas were aggressive and expansionist with violent religious rights and powerful military force unlike the aztecs the incas tried to simulate conquered peoples rather than treating them simply as tribute states in 1532 francisco pizarro and 180 men armed with horses gun powder and steel weapons followed rumors of even greater riches than those of mexico discovered the inca empire high in the pruavian andes the spaniards arrived in a moment of weakness of the empire and there was civil war there was no name successor at the death of the previous emperor so war had broken out out of hoopa the victor was on his way from the empire's northern provinces to claim his throne at cusco much weakened when pizarro intercepted captured and killed him the spaniards then captured cusco eventually extended control over the whole empire and established a new capital at lima by 1550 spain's new world empire stretched from the caribbean through mexico to peru new spade by the 16th century spain's settlements in the new world stretched from south america to the southern portion of north america in order to maintain these civilizations the incomey invest system was established by rewarding faithful officers with land grants and control of the neighboring villages and indian tribes spain hoped to able better cultivate its resources while establishing a support system for its missions by this time in the west indies the native american population had been virtually wiped out by disease making it necessary to import african slaves who had already been exposed to diseases of the old world to take their place impact on the slave trade some 10 million sold into slavery between the 16th and 19th centuries villages and empires were destroyed by these losses administration of the spanish empire viceroy's new spain in peru new spain consisted of mexico central america and the caribbean capital mexico city peru's capital was lima the social structure peninsulares were born in spain and were the only ones that could act as governors and viceroys creoles were a hundred percent pure spanish blood but their sin was that they were born in the americas they could only attain office but never governor or viceroy mestizos was a mixture of native in the spanish blood the spanish encouraged their spanish men to marry the native american women milottos was a mixture of african and european blood then came the natives and then finally the slaves the audiences were supreme judicial modesty bodies who advised the viceroy and the ecclesiastical affairs came under the catholic church franciscans dominicans and jesuits converted the natives by the thousands the hierarchy of the church as well established in the spanish new world the catholic empire throughout the various religious orders of the catholicism the empire hoped to establish a christian empire in the new world differing methods existed for converting the heathen natives to catholicism but by the end of the 16th century most believed it was easier to convert them by force than by persuasion bartolo mayo de las casas a priest in cuba published his account of the spaniards treatment of the natives which led to the spanish crowd to reconsider their colonial policy in the new world beside despite philip ii and other spanish monarchs efforts to promote better treatment of native americans however many colonists prefer to ignore royal decrees and treat these populations harshly the columbia exchange the two continents were very dissimilar in the manner of plants animals devices and diseases after columbus's trips to america's future voyages participated in a sustained cultural disease and good exchange between the old and new world has become known as the clubby exchange animals new to the old world including the flying squirrel iguana catfish rattlesnake and armadilla animals new to the new world include horses cattle pigs sheeps and goats plants new to the old world included corn potatoes peanuts peppers chocolate tobacco and pumpkins plants new to the new world included coffee olives wheat sugarcane and rice the vices and substances new to the old world included canoes snowshoes hammocks certain hallucinogenic substances used in native american religious ceremonies in the game of lacrosse devices and substances new to the new world include the use of wheeled carts drawn by horses firearms tobacco and several drugs diseases new to the new world included smallpox bubonic plague malaria and yellow fever the transmission of these diseases killed more native americans than any other event scholars estimated that the infectionist diseases brought by the europeans and enslaved africans killed up to 80 to 90 percent of the american native population the spanish and north america spanish settlements did not take hold in north america as fast as they had in central america this is mainly due to the lack of established civilizations of native americans in north america in addition spain largely viewed their northern american colonies as military and cultural buffers that protected their lucrative mining and other economic political and cultural interests in mexico and south and central america in central america the spaniards moved into pre-existing cities and took them over in the north no such settlements existed the nomadic lifestyle the lack of precious mineral resources in north america precluded the influx of capital necessary to sustain a viable settlement as corruption and wealth grew among the conquistadors the encomienda system was replaced with the hacienda instead of a city a smaller farm or ranch would oversee by appointed bureaucrat this did not stop spanish settlers from seeking their fame and fortune in north america with time spain's american empire became characterized more by its organized bureaucracy than by its earlier exploits of the conquistadors spanish florida one ponce de leon in 1513 established a short-lived colony in the carolina coast and explored in name florida pascua de la florida the festival of flowers because he's found it on easter sunday panfino did narves explored from florida to the mississippi river although he drowned at sea in the process hernando travel across much of present-day america south and then up the mississippi and arkansas rivers he too would die during the exploration french huguenots or french protestant exiles built a fort in present-day jacksonville named fort carillon pedro menendez the obvious was dispatched by the spanish crown and a group of 1500 soldiers and colonists and established saint augustine in northern florida partly in response to the threats of the french huguenots protestant calvinists colonizing the region to protect spanish settlements saint augustine was established in 1565 is the longest surviving permanent european settlement in the present day united states the avalez was successful in defeating and driving out the french francisco vasquez the coronado searched new mexico following rumors of gold many of the early spanish settlements what is now the united states were established as buffers to french english and russian settlements juan olney was given the land grant in 1595 of el norte above the rio grande he and the group of colonists settled in the region that is present-day new mexico in 1598. after a revolt of the oklahoma pueblo december of 1598 ornate responded harshly he ordered the killing of many pueblo men women and children to put down the revolt once it was suppressed the survivors were enslaved and ornate decreed that 24 the pueblo males over the age of 25 should have one foot silver to remind you native americans what would happen if they chose to rebel catholic missions spaniards and the first permanent settlements in the southwest were more eager to pacify the native americans there than to conquer them in addition they often begrudgingly recognize that the native american nations in the southwest regain greater power in the region than did the spaniards they therefore established missions in order to try to convert them to catholicism and civilize them those native americans who lived in the missions including many hopi zuni and pueblo people seeking peace agreed to move to the missions and become subject to spanish rule in exchange for promises of protection from their apache and other enemies there they are expected to provide labor for the missions even after the missions became secularized many other native americans in southwest however especially the apaches resist the attempts by the spanish priests settlers or leaders to control the region the mestizo or the mixed children relationship between spanish men and native american women became the majority of the new spanish population the limited number of spanish or other european women who moved to the new spain played a role in the growth of mestizo community this large multi-racial community helped prompt spain to be more inclusive in racial and social matters than the english although there was still a social hierarchy based on the racial groupings in new spain the pueblo revolt of 1680 pope a charismatic pueblo spiritual leader led an uprising of pueblo warriors against emissions in the spanish settlement new mexico by the end of the rebellion those 2 400 spanish survivors had fled and new mexico had returned to pueblo control this became the greatest defeat in europeans by native americans only after 12 years did spanish leaders reestablish settlements in military posts in the region not native to the new world the horse became the plane's indian's most useful tool and weapon horses became so valuable that they intensified intertribal warfare as indians fought for their control the pueblos and other native american nations who allied themselves with the spanish gained access to spanish horses to trade the spread of the horses through the southwest to great plains allowed native american groups to travel more quickly than to replace dogs with horses in their primary beasts of burden the introduction of the horse to the great plains region allowed those native american groups who possess horses to hunt more quickly in efficiency this enabled them to kill more bison which were a source of food clothing and many other important commodities although the horse enabled its owner to travel more quickly and hunt more effectively it also led to increased prowess and warfare which exhibited already existing tensions and the reason challenges to the spanish empire following the solidification of the protestant reformation both england and france turned their attention to the rise of the spanish power in the new world and to the opportunities presented by establishing their own colonies in the americas giovanni de veteranzano an italian sailing for the french attempted to discover a western passage to india to no avail he explored the coast of north america in 1594. jacques cortier made three of voyages to establish colonies in the 1540s he explored the gulf of saint lawrence and canada and traveled up the st lawrence river between canada and new york after that the french became mired in religious wars and lost interest in the area channel de champlain became known as the father of new france for successful expeditions to the region in the 1600s the french became involved in a lucrative fur trade in canada and the new france region samuel d champlain led this effort and the fur trade remained important to the french and ultimately led to the establishment of trade posts and settlements in the illinois ohio and mississippi river valleys here we see the globe indicating the english french and dutch explorations as we can see that the french mostly settled in the northern part of what is canada the english around the middle part of north america and the dutch would actually get right to what is thinner to what would become new york the dutch rebellion the netherlands had passed to spanish control and revolted against the rule in 1567. the netherlands rebellion lasted until 1648 when its official independence was recognized despite its ongoing rebellion and england's support for the rebels both the dutch and the english continued to benefit from lucrative trade with spain and its colonies the defeat of the armada queen elizabeth actively worked to subvert the policies in the spanish but not to encourage an actual warfare she walked a fine line with her privateers led by john hawkins and francis drinks the english sea dogs who were actually stealing from the gold fleet ships that are coming out of mexico in peru elizabeth always denied she had any part of it but when king philip ii finally got wind to who was behind it he was seeking war elizabeth's most dire threat to their throne came in the form of the spanish armada was which was dispatched in 1588 by king philip ii of spain to defeat the british navy and remove elizabeth as queen partly in an effort to stop english support of the revolutionaries in the netherlands the invincible armada was destroyed in the storm on the way in 1588 and the armada was thus defeated when the english used fire ships to go against the huge armada this is a turning point in history because england gained a free hand in establishing settlements in the new world and began to rise as the new world power as spain declined english exploration america sir humphrey gilbert mr walty riley gilbert secured a patent established a colony in the new world after two failed attempts he was lost at sea and his half-brother sir walter riley established a colony in present-day north carolina the expedition searched the north american mainland which he dubbed virginia in honor of the virgin queen elizabeth the first they spied on spanish defenses in the caribbean and landed on roanoke island before returning to england the first attempt established the colonizing party in april of 1585 to roanoke island leaving lane in charge the colonists abandoned the area in june of 1586. returning to england with sir francis train grenville returned with supplies to find the colony abandoned and left 15 men the lost colony of roma another expedition under john white arrived in july in 1587 and found no survivors leaving another group of colonists white returned to england one week after his granddaughter virginia dare who was born on august 18th the first english child to be born in the new world unable to return until august of 1590 due to the spanish armada white found no trace in the colonists except for the letters croatan carved in a tree the name of a neighboring tribe a final expedition dispatched in march of 1602 made a feudal search for survivors none was found recent evidence has revealed that the colony experienced a severe drought during the time he was gone and so ends the first unit on the clash of cultures