Section A: The Physical Environment
1.1 Location, climate and biomes
a) Position of Bangladesh in South Asia and globally, and regional variations in climatic zones (tropical savanna, humid subtropical, subtropical highland and monsoon).
Position
1) i) Bangladesh has a tropical monsoonal climate
ii) which is favourable for agriculture
iii) and is because of being on a tropic, the Tropic of Cancer and also at the edge of a great land mass, Asia.
2) i) The Bay of Bengal provides it access to fishing grounds
ii) allowing it to catch a variety of fish such as catfish, goatfish, jawfish and mackerel
iii) which provide income to a large number of fishermen
iv) and exports also generate great income for the country.
v) However, it also makes Bangladesh very vulnerable to sea level rise and storm surges.
3) i) It lies next to India
ii) which allows it good access to trade.
iii) However, India has upstream control of chief rivers flowing through Bangladesh
iv) so the decisions made by it may be in its own favour.
4) i) Great distance to major RMG markets such as in Europe and North America
ii) means great transportation costs.
Monsoon climate
1) seasonal reversal of winds (SE to NW)
2) wet summers
3) dry winters
Humid subtropical climate
1) heavy rainfall
2) hot summers
3) cool winters
Regional variations in climatic zones
b) The nature and causes of seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature, including the characteristics and causes of the Southwest Monsoon and Western Disturbances.
Seasons
Pre-Monsoon
1) March to May
2) high temperatures
3) April is the hottest month
4) thunderstorms
5) variable wind direction
Monsoon
1) June to October
2) humid south and south-westerly winds blow
3) heavy rainfall
4) consecutive days of rainfall
Winter
1) November to February
2) cool temperatures
3) cool winds blow from the north and north-west
4) low rainfall
5) clear skies
Cause of variations in precipitation
1) i) Subtropical monsoon climate causes
ii) variations in climatic characteristics, including rainfall
iii) heavy rainfall from June to October
iv) higher rainfall from late spring to early summer
2) i) Bangladesh has three distinct seasons
ii) with high rainfall during the monsoon season.
3) The humid southerly or south-westerly winds blow during the monsoon season causing rainfall.
4) Tropical depression moving in from the Bay of Bengal causes consecutive days of rainfall.
Cause of variations in temperature
1) i) Bangladesh has three distinct seasons
ii) with high temperatures in the pre-monsoon season, and cool temperatures in the winter season.
2) i) The earth’s tilt causes one hemisphere to receive more direct sunlight than the other.
ii) When the northern hemisphere receives the most direct sunlight, Bangladesh experiences summer, and when least direct, winter.
3) i) Increasing cloud cover after April
ii) causes temperatures to drop.
4) i) During winter, cold winds blow from the north and north-west
ii) which causes temperatures to drop.
Cause of Southwest Monsoon
During the summer months, the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than the Indian Ocean. This causes moist winds to move from the sea to the land. The earth’s rotation causes these winds to deflect to the right, which is why they blow in from the southwest direction. The moist winds meet the Himalayas and are forced to rise up. They cool down to form clouds which cause rainfall.
Characteristics of the Southwest Monsoon.
1) June to October
2) moderate to heavy rainfall
3) cloudy skies
4) high humidity
5) south to south-westerly winds
Cause of Western Disturbance.
A high pressure zone forms over Ukraine and neighbouring regions which attracts cold winds from the polar regions. The cold winds meet warm winds, creating favourable conditions for a cyclone to form, resulting in a depression. The depression moves eastwards due to westerly winds, and causes disturbances to weather patterns which are called Western Disturbances.
Characteristics of Western Disturbances.
1) i) affects the northern-western regions of the Indian subcontinent
ii) by causing sudden winter rainfall
c) Distribution and characteristics of large-scale ecosystems (i.e. biomes).
Distribution of mangrove ecosystem
Characteristics of mangrove ecosystem
1) small trees and shrubs
2) saline or brackish waters
3) trees have roots which
i) have complex salt filtration system
ii) are shallow
4) breeding area for small fish
5) habitat for wildlife such as crocodiles
1.2 Tectonic and glacial processes and landforms, and geophysical hazards
a) Tectonic processes affecting Bangladesh and the formation of the Himalayan landscape (fold mountains).
Plate boundary
The area where two tectonic plates meet is known as the plate boundary.
Formation of the Himalayan landscape
The Indian and Eurasian plates moved towards each other. They pushed layers of sedimentary rocks between them. Since the two plates were of same density, there was no subduction. The rocks crumpled up and folded, forming mountain ridges.
b) Glacial processes that operate in the Himalayan landscape (long-term and seasonal accumulation/ablation of glacial systems).
Accumulation
Definition
Build up of snow and frozen material on the surface of a glacier, which becomes compacted
Processes
1) snowfall
2) redistribution by wind and avalanche
3) refreezing of meltwater
4) deposition - direct accumulation of water (by freezing) or water vapour (by sublimation) on the glacier surface
Ablation
Definition
Loss of ice mass from a glacier, often from its snout
Processes
1) melt and runoff
2) sublimation - direct transition of snow or ice to water vapour
3) calving - separation of ice blocks from a glacier’s margin
c) The primary and secondary impacts of earthquakes on Bangladesh and responses of national and international governments, agencies and individuals to these earthquake events.
Primary impacts
1) Cracks and fissures forming on the surface of the earth
2) Buildings get damaged
3) Injuries and death of people and animals
4) Transport and communication lines get damaged
Secondary impacts
1) Aftershocks cause further damage to structures already damaged by ground shaking.
2) Electrical lines and gas lines get damaged, causing fires, which cause further damage, deaths and injuries
3) Liquefaction of soil below buildings and infrastructure cause it to sink, causing destruction, deaths and injuries
4) Deaths and destruction can have economic repercussions such as loss of productivity, disruption of supply chains, businesses closing down, etc.
5) Injuries and cuts due to the earthquake can get contaminated with bacteria from soil and rubble, causing infection and hence disease.
Agencies (what they have done)
1) i) The DEEP project was an joint initiative taken by the German Red Cross, Christian Aid and the Action Contre la Faim which
ii) enhanced the knowledge and skills of local actors such as the Bangladesh Fire Service and Civil Defense,
ii) trained 200 Red Cross Youth volunteers and an additional 3,000 volunteers for assistance during emergencies,
iii) and mobilised 35,000 students, in planning and implementing earthquake disaster action plans.
2) i) The Dhaka Chamber of Commerce and Industry (DCCI), in collaboration with ActionAid and World Vision Bangladesh, created the SUPER project
iii) which increased the collaboration of the private sector for risk reduction and risk management, through the platform PEOC.
Agencies (what they can do)
Primary impacts
1) They can convince the government to enforce laws for making buildings so as to make them more earthquake resilient.
2) They can help repair or rebuild transport links so that people and goods can move around the country.
3) They can help provide emergency medical services to treat injuries and minimise deaths.
Secondary impacts
1) They can provide emergency medical supplies or personnel to prevent the spread of infectious diseases among refugees.
2) They can install tsunami early warning systems so that people get time to seek shelter, which can help prevent deaths.
3) They can introduce educational programmes to teach people how to respond to earthquake events.
4) They can create specialist teams to rescue people from fires and collapsed buildings and other structures.
National government
1) i) A survey conducted by RAJUK revealed that 94.7% of structures in major regions of Dhaka do not meet structural and design prerequisites
ii) which reveals the vulnerability of Dhaka to major earthquake events.
2) i) The Bangladesh National Building Code 2020 is an earthquake-resilient building code
i) however, its implementation has been weak, and many buildings are being built without adhering to its guidelines.
3) i) To ensure ample manpower and swift action following an earthquake event,
ii) the government has set up a target of training 66,000 volunteers and 46,000 have been trained so far.
4) i) RAJUK implemented the Urban Resilience Project by the Bangladesh government and the World Bank
ii) under which a comprehensive map of vulnerable structures was created, using modern tools for seismic risk assessment.
5) i) A large number of people remain unaware of the safety precautions that must be taken during an earthquake
ii) hence initiatives must be taken to educate them.
1.3 Relief, drainage and hydro-meteorological hazards
a) The relief regions and characteristics of the drainage network of Bangladesh (Padma, Jamuna and Meghna floodplains and the Ganges deltaic coastline).
Ganges/Padma
1) originates in the western Himalayas, where it’s called Ganges
2) courses into Bangladesh through its western border
3) meets the Jamuna 72 km west of Dhaka where it’s called Padma
4) its mouth is the Bay of Bengal
Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra/Jamuna
1) originates in Tibet, where it’s called Yarlung Tsangpo
2) passes through Arunachal Pradesh, where it’s called Brahmaputra
3) courses into Bangladesh through its north-western border
4) joins with the Tista river, where it’s called Jamuna
5) has a distributary called the Old Brahmaputra
6) meets the Ganges 72 km west of Dhaka
7) its mouth is the Bay of Bengal
Meghna
1) formed in Kishoreganj, above Bhairab Bazar
2) by the confluence of the Surma and Kushiyara rivers
3) meets the Padma near Chandpur
4) its mouth is the Bay of Bengal
Ganges delta
1) low lying land
2) slow moving water
3) may contain stagnant water
4) distributaries
5) many islands
6) fertile land
7) tidal waters
8) formed by deposition of sediments
Floodplains
1) formed in the low courses of a river
2) below sea level
3) relatively flat areas
4) formed by deposition of sediments
Formation of Ganges delta
1) The combined stream of the Padma, Meghna and Jamuna empties into the Bay of Bengal
2) Silt and other materials started depositing at its mouth
3) causing the stream to split into multiple streams, creating the Ganges delta.
Formation of floodplains
deposition of sediments
by rivers
on valley floors
during flooding
b) The causes and characteristics of tropical cyclones, storm surges and flooding (river and coastal).
Characteristics of tropical cyclones
1) storm surges
2) strong winds
3) heavy rainfall
(Physical) causes of storm surges
1) i) A tropical cyclone occurs
ii) causing strong winds to travel over the Bay of Bengal
iii) which makes the water form large waves
iv) which flood the coastline
2) i) The Bay of Bengal acts as a funnel
ii) which draws in tropical cyclones
iii) and these bring large waves onto the shore
(Physical) causes of river flooding
1) i) Monsoon climate causes heavy rainfall
ii) from June to October.
iii) 80% of the year’s rainfall occurs during this period.
iv) In 2020, 1/3rd of Dhaka was submerged due to heavy rainfall.
2) i) Melting of Himalayan glaciers
ii) increases river discharge, causing flooding.
3) i) Bangladesh faces a lot of cyclones
ii) which causes heavy rainfall, contributing to river flooding.
4) 70% of Bangladesh lies less than 1m above sea level, making it particularly prone to river flooding
5) more than 50% of Bangladesh lies less than 5m above sea level.
(Human) causes of river flooding
1) i) Deforestation at the upper course of a river
ii) makes the soil get washed off more easily.
iii) These accumulate on the riverbed, decreasing how much water the river can carry, hence increasing flooding.
2) i) Embankments are placed to prevent river flooding
ii) but they fail due to lack of proper monitoring and repairs.
3) i) Urbanisation prompts deforestation, which increases soil erosion, contributing to river flooding.
ii) Lack of trees also means less protection from flood currents.
4) i) Climate change
ii) increases frequency of cyclones and intense rainfall, thus increasing river flooding.
(Physical) causes of coastal flooding
1) Tropical cyclones cause strong winds to blow up the Bay of Bengal, creating large waves, causing storm surges which flood coastal regions.
2) Earthquakes cause tsunamis which are large waves that wash onto the shore, causing flooding.
3) Glaciers are melting due to global warming, causing sea levels to rise, hence low lying coastal regions are getting submerged.
(Human) causes of coastal flooding
1) i) Mangrove forests are being cut down for timber and for clearing land for fish farms.
ii) Lack of trees means less protection from storm surges, thus increasing risk of coastal flooding.
2) i) Embankments along the coast are often poorly built and have low maintenance
ii) hence they break when faced with storm surges and fail to stop coastal flooding.
3) i) Burning of fossil fuels by vehicles and industries releases carbon dioxide
ii) which contributes to the greenhouse effect, causing global warming and climate change
iii) which increases the frequency of cyclones
iv) thus frequency of storm surges is increased, making coastal flooding more likely.
c) The responses of national and international governments, agencies and individuals to flooding and tropical cyclones in Bangladesh.
Responses to river flooding (government)
1) i) Embankments were created in the 1960s to protect low lying areas from river flooding.
ii) The Bangladesh Water Development Board has funded almost 6000 km of embankments.
2) i) Many of these embankments have been successful in helping prevent coastal islands from flooding
ii) and have also increased food production.
3) i) However, these can create a false sense of protection
ii) as many embankments fail during intense cyclones
iii) especially they often fail to receive proper monitoring and timely repairs.
4) i) However, flood control measures can have adverse effects as well
ii) for example, a low lying island, Polder 32, experienced rising local water levels as a consequence of flood control measures.
5) i) There are more sustainable methods of mitigating to river flooding
ii) such as building houses on stilts
iii) and investing in early warning systems.
Responses to tropical cyclones (international agencies)
1) i) UNHCR provided clothing, cooking materials and temporary housing materials to homeless individuals
ii) preventing suffering and death from homelessness.
2) i) Red Cross Youth evacuated people to cyclone shelters
ii) preventing deaths due to the cyclone.
3) i) Red Crescent provided food and water to the people in the shelters
ii) preventing death from starvation.
Responses to tropical cyclones (national government)
1) i) The government’s handling of Cyclone Sidr was largely a failure
ii) Warnings about the cyclone were sent only over mobile phones and not over television or radio, which caused many deaths as the cyclone took them by surprise.
iii) The government did not have sufficient shelters, thus they failed to accommodate a large number of refugees, causing deaths.
iv) The government was also slow in its handling of relief operations due to lack of organisation and also poor infrastructure, which led to deaths as people could not be evacuated in time, or could not get help in time.
v) Cyclone Sidr caused the deaths of 3500 people and affected 7 million. If the government was effective in its handling of relief efforts, the number of deaths could’ve been greatly reduced.
vi) Since then, the government has built many new shelters to accommodate a larger number of people.
vii) They’ve also developed many effective warning systems, and with each cyclone, instructed local authorities to spread awareness and evacuate people.
viii) They’ve also created several embankments to reduce coastal flooding from storm surges.
ix) They’ve increased forest cover along the coast to improve the natural barrier against cyclones.
2) We’ve seen success handling future cyclonic events due to the lessons taught by Cyclone Sidr and there are many examples of successful responses by the government.
3) i) Local authorities instructed by the government, coordinated relief aid
ii) ensuring that it was distributed evenly to the refugees
2) i) The government worked with the Red Crescent
ii) to ensure that food and drinking water were distributed
iii) evenly to the shelters
4) i) The government invested in the Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP) where they worked with the Red Crescent to set up early warning systems in many districts.
ii) This would allow greater preparedness, as they would be able to seek shelter and protect their belongings in time.
5) i) The government mobilised military vehicles such as helicopters, boats and trucks
ii) to provide emergency rescue and repair services.
6) Through the Coastal Embankment Improvement Project, the government has ensured regular monitoring and repairs of embankments and polders, such as along the south-western coast.
7) i) It has also launched education programmes to teach local communities how to respond to cyclonic events.
ii) It has also established local evacuation plans.
8) i) The government also makes great efforts to plant mangrove trees along the coast and restore forested areas
ii) which is important as mangrove forests act as a natural barrier against storm surges.
Responses to cyclone (general)
1) emergency shelters
2) local disaster action plans
3) quick, effective warning systems
4) buildings that can withstand strong winds
Responses to storm surges (general)
1) sea walls
2) plan to keep settlements away from low-lying, exposed parts of the coast
3) set up emergency refuge areas
Responses to floods (general)
1) build dams and reservoirs
2) build flood walls along river banks
3) make river channels straighter and deeper
4) set up emergency shelters above frequently flooded areas
5) keep settlements away from floodplains
6) planting mangrove trees
1.4 Natural resources and their exploitation
a) The distribution and exploitation of two natural resources (water, forest products, fish/shellfish and/or minerals).
Importance of fishing
1) i) It is a cheap protein source
ii) that makes up 60% of the animal protein intake of the population
iii) and helps alleviate food insecurity.
2) i) It is an important source of income for many people.
ii) In fact, the fish industry provides employment to 12% of the working population.
2) i) Fish is an important export of Bangladesh
ii) and helps mitigate the negative trade balance of the country.
iii) Bangladesh exports fish to 52 countries
iv) with prawns, hilsa and pangash being chief fish exports.
Distribution + Exploitation of fish
1) i) Freshwater fish such as mola, chapila, tengra, etc.
ii) are caught from floodplains, rivers and beels
2) Many fish such as prawns and hilsa are also cultured in closed waters and ponds.
3) i) Prawn, shrimp, small fish are cultured
ii) in estuarine waters, at Khulna, Cox’s Bazar, Teknaf, etc.
4) i) Shrimps, mackerel, catfish, jawfish, goatfish, etc.
ii) are caught at the three fishing grounds in the Bay of Bengal
iii) the South Patches, the Middle Ground and the Swatch of No Ground, with the South Patches being the most productive.
Distribution of forests
1) Mangrove forests - the Khulna Division, the Sundarbans being the world’s largest mangrove forest
2) Evergreen forests - the Chittagong Hill Tracts and the hilly margins of Sylhet
3) Deciduous forests - Dinajpur, Dhaka, Mymensingh and Comilla
Exploitation of forests
1) Timber for building, construction and making furniture
2) Fruits and honey for consumption
3) Medicinal crops for making traditional medicine which treat rheumatism, diabetes, skin diseases, fever and diarrhea
4) Fuelwood for cooking
b) Energy resources – renewable and non-renewable – their distribution and exploitation: examples of one renewable and one non-renewable resource.
Non-Renewable Resource
A resource that cannot be replaced or renewed once it’s used. For example coal, oil, natural gas, clay soil.
Renewable Resource
A resource that can be replaced or renewed naturally. For example, water, air, solar power.
Renewable resources
1) The Karnaphuli Hydroelectric Power Station is the only hydroelectric power plant in Bangladesh.
2) i) Bangladesh has a number of solar farms such as the Teesta Solar Ltd, the Mongla Orion Solar and the Sutiakhali Solar Power Plant.
ii) Since 1996, the government has installed millions of solar energy units, on houses, street lamps, telecommunication towers, etc.
iii) These help provide power to remote parts of the country where electricity lines can’t reach.
3) Bangladesh has a wind power station at Cox’s Bazar, which is the largest built in the country so far.
4) Bangladesh has great potential to harness tidal power and has a number of suitable locations such as Cox’s Bazar, Mongla and Hiron Points.
5) These renewable energy resources help improve the energy security of the country, providing it with alternate energy sources when there are shortages of coal, oil, etc.
6) It also reduces reliance on imported energy, so the country has a less negative trade balance. Self-sufficiency also means that it does not suffer energy shortages due to international crises.
7) Using renewable energy sources rather than burning fossil fuels reduces carbon dioxide emissions.
8) Biogas plants in villages and households ensure self-sufficiency in energy production and help provide remote locations with power. It is also important as fuel for cooking.
Non-renewable resources
1) i) Bangladesh has five coal fields discovered so far, all in the northwest of the country, of which the one at Barapukuria is the only exploited.
ii) It is reported to have caused land to sink and soil properties to be altered due to contamination by heavy metals such as lead.
iii) Water pumped out of the coal mine has also resulted in water shortages in surrounding villages, affecting the lives of people.
iv) These mines spoil the landscape, destroy natural habitats and reduce biodiversity
v) and can also cause river channels to shift, causing flooding.
2) i) Bangladesh has 29 gas fields with 20 in production, found mainly in the eastern part of the country and offshore in the Bay of Bengal.
ii) Only one oil field had been discovered, in the north-east of the country, in Haripur, which stopped production in 1994.
2) i) There are many fossil fuel based power stations in Bangladesh, such as at Barapukuria, Ashuganj, Matarbari, etc.
i) Burning of fossil fuels produces vast amounts of carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and pollutants.
ii) Pollutants contaminate the city air, worsening its quality, causing the populace to suffer breathing illnesses such as bronchitis, increasing mortality.
iii) Carbon dioxide contributes to the greenhouse effect, causing global warming and climate change.
iv) Sulfur dioxide causes acid rain which kills crops and fish in ponds, causing food insecurity.
3) i) The country’s first nuclear power station, the Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, is currently under construction.
ii) It is expected to be able to supply 15% of the country’s power needs upon completion.
c) Environmental impacts resulting from the exploitation of one natural resource (water, forest products, fish/shellfish or minerals), and one renewable and one non-renewable energy resource.
Exploitation of water
1) i) Garments factories take up a lot of water, causing groundwater levels to deplete, in regions around Dhaka
ii) which is not only decreasing supply of drinking water for the population
iii) but is also intensifying arsenic contamination.
2) i) Exploitation of water by mines, such as the Barapukuria coal mine
ii) has resulted in water shortages in surrounding villages, affecting the lives of people.
3) Overuse of water for irrigation can also deplete supplies of groundwater for drinking.
Exploitation of forest products
1) i) Forest cover is decreasing because trees are being cut down for timber, particularly in the hilly regions of southeastern Bangladesh.
2) Deforestation causes soil quality to decline and increases risk of topsoil being washed away by rain. It also destroys habitats for various species of plants and animals, causing loss of biodiversity.
3) Deforestation of the mangrove forests reduces protection of the coastline from storm surges.
3) Trees trap washed away soil and sediments, which helps cut down river and coastal flooding through decreased deposition on the beds, so deforestation increases risk of river and coastal flooding.
Exploitation of fish
1) Because of poor management, areas of land converted to shrimp farms have hindered water flow, restricting movement of native fish, and thus disrupting the mangrove ecosystems.
2) Freshwater fish farming uses intensive methods which disrupt the breeding cycle of fish.
3) Overfishing and also killing of young fish in coastal and marine areas have reduced food stocks and disrupted the food chain and thus the ecosystem.
4) Deforestation of mangrove trees to clear areas for aqua-culture increases soil erosion, which in turn contributes to coastal and river flooding, and decreases protection from storm surges.
Exploitation of coal
1) i) Coal mining at Barapukuria has caused land to sink and soil properties to be altered,
ii) soil and the water to be polluted by heavy metals,
iii) and water shortages in surrounding villages.
2) Mining activities destroy habitats, killing animals, causing lack of biodiversity.
3) They also shift river channels, increasing the risk of flooding.
Exploitation of hydropower
1) i) It can cause great displacement of communities and disrupt their social and cultural lives.
ii) The building of the Kaptai Dam for the Karnaphuli Hydroelectric Power Station led to the displacement of 100,000 Jummas, and caused flooding of their ancestral home.
iii) This was a great disruption to their way of life and led to great conflicts with the government.
2) i) Dams can prevent fish from swimming along their natural pathways between feeding and breeding grounds
ii) thus it limits their ability to reproduce and can even cause fish species to disappear, causing great loss of biodiversity.
3) i) Building of reservoirs can cause flooding of organic matter.
ii) Natural processes lead to the emission of methane from them.
iii) Thus exploitation of hydropower can indirectly cause greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to global warming.
Section B: The Human Environment
2.1 Bangladesh’s economy: the primary sector and the need for food security
a) Factors influencing the distribution of agricultural production in Bangladesh (climatic events, dynamic floodplains, the deltaic coastline, income, population density).
Factors affecting rice farming
1) i) Climate
ii) Tropical and humid climate is preferred, and extreme temperatures are avoided.
2) i) Relief
ii) Flat regions are preferred as they are more accessible to workers, and it also makes it easier for transport.
3) i) Soil
ii) Floodplains are preferred, due to fertile soils which can help increase crop yields.
4) i) Water supply
ii) An abundant water supply is required for the irrigation of the rice crops.
5) i) Labour
ii) Labour is required for tending and cultivating the crops.
b) Strategies to increase agricultural output (land rights reforms, plant breeding programmes, fertilisers/pesticides, education, water management and appropriate/intermediate technology).
Land rights reforms
1) i) Land administrative system of the country is corrupt, inefficient and unreliable
ii) and has systematic errors and dysfunctional elements that intensify agrarian poverty.
2) i) Marginal and tenure farmers have land rights on paper
ii) but in practice, these are not exercised and enforced.
iii) Discriminatory administrative and legal systems further weaken their position, worsening their conditions.
3) i) Thus it is important that the shortcomings of the system are addressed at the root level to ensure proper land rights of the farmers.
ii) Corruption must be addressed as well, with strict law enforcement and no discrimination, to ensure proper equal rights for everyone.
Education
1) The Integrated Agricultural Productivity Project (IAPP) provided technical knowledge to 300,000 farmers and improved irrigation of 27,750 hectares of land.
2) Organisations such as BRAC provide technical knowledge and education about diversified fish cultures to increase production.
3) i) National Agricultural Technology Program focuses on
ii) increasing productivity
iii) food security
iv) resilience to climate change
v) and has also provided education to women to increase their participation in agriculture
vi) and also worked towards improving access to technology and farming practices.
Fertilisers/Pesticides
1) Fertilisers improve plant health, allowing higher yields.
2) Pesticides kill pests such as yellow stem borers that would otherwise eat the crops, fungi that cause plant diseases such as blight, and weeds that would otherwise take away all their nutrients.
3) Fertilisers and pesticides can worsen soil quality.
4) Leakage of fertilisers into water bodies may cause excessive growth of algae, depriving fish and aquatic plants of oxygen.
5) Leakage of pesticides may poison and kill fish, contributing to food insecurity.
6) Biodiversity is reduced, and the food chain is disrupted.
Water management
1) Irrigation of crops using surface water and groundwater is critical in preventing loss of crops due to water shortages, especially during droughts.
2) However, pumps are expensive to purchase and maintain. The government is aware of this and is leaning more towards community based methods of irrigation.
Plant breeding programmes
1) High yielding varieties of rice and wheat grow faster than traditional varieties, hence are able to produce higher yields in the same amount of time.
2) Thus plant breeding programmes help communities make more money in the same amount of time, by selling the higher yields.
3) HYVs are also more resilient to storms, making them a very good option as the frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events increase.
4) However, HYVs are vulnerable to drought conditions, hence require careful watering, otherwise they’d die.
5) Some varieties are also more vulnerable to pests and disease, hence additional costs are incurred for purchasing and applying pesticides, etc.
Appropriate/intermediate technology
1) i) Use of mechanisation for farming can help increase productivity and reduce need for labour.
ii) Rural urban migration has made access to labour more difficult, which is a problem, since tasks such as planting and harvesting are labour intensive.
2) i) Not planting seeds at the right time of the year can lead to smaller yields.
ii) Due to labour shortages, farmers have had to delay planting their seeds, so they had to face much lower crop yields.
iii) Seed planters can be used to resolve this problem
iv) and the cost of operation can also be brought down greatly.
2) i) Machinery is used by farmers for various agricultural tasks such as threshing
ii) but more advanced machinery such as combine harvesters and seed planters are very expensive and unaffordable to farmers, since the industry is very small in Bangladesh, hence these are imports.
iii) Farmers have to rely on manual labour because of this, so labour shortage leads to smaller yields.
3) i) Lack of access to agricultural credit makes it difficult for farmers to make loans to purchase such machinery.
ii) Borrowing money from local moneylenders and loan sharks makes it difficult for them to save money.
4) i) The government has placed subsidies on the purchase of specific machinery, to boost agricultural mechanisation.
ii) They have also distributed rice planters, combine harvesters, reapers, etc. in a mechanisation project titled “Mechanisation of Agricultural Work through Integrated Management”.
iii) Bangladesh Bank also reduced the interest rate for farmers, to allow them to better afford good quality agricultural inputs.
Programmes
1) i) Green Revolution 1960 increased agricultural production
ii) by evolving farming practices through biochemical, mechanical and social changes.
2) i) National Agricultural Policy 2013
ii) aimed to ensure food security and proper nutrition
iii) to increase productivity, diversification, commercialisation
iv) and encourage participation of the private sector in providing high quality seeds.
v) It shed light on challenges hindering advancements in agricultural production.
Challenges
1) lack of infrastructure makes transport of goods to markets difficult
2) due to financial constraints, some farmers are not able to purchase fertilisers, pesticides, etc. and so their productivity is limited
3) farmers have limited access to credit, and so they are not able to invest in mechanisation
4) lack of ICT in farming technologies limits opportunities, such as access to information about the weather, plant diseases, plant nutrients, market prices, etc.
c) Approaches to managing food security in Bangladesh.
Approaches to managing food security
1) i) Various sectors of the government have worked together to adopt programmes for increasing food production.
ii) NGOs and international agencies such as the FAO, USAID, WFP, etc. also play a large role.
2) i) Food Security Country Framework (FSCF) has improved food production to meet the needs of the growing population
iv) through various practices such as intensive farming, crop rotation, using good quality inputs, using mechanisation for crop cultivation, etc.
3) Training programmes have been set up for women to teach them about nutrition and to increase their participation in agriculture.
4) i) Programmes have been set up that encourage the use of HYVs and various farming technology
ii) which have allowed people to be self-sufficient in the production of rice, potatoes, etc.
5) i) The FAO worked to teach people in remote regions of Chittagong Hill Tracts about household farming, improving the quality of seeds, better farming practices, poultry farming, etc.
ii) which helped increase food security for them.
6) i) USAID estimates that malnutrition costs Bangladesh US$1 billion in productivity and health costs
ii) thus it’s essential to ensure food security and reduce malnutrition in the population.
7) i) Bangladesh faced a chronic food deficit in 1970 and since then it has taken remarkable steps to improve food security.
ii) The Green Revolution aimed to boost agricultural productivity through biochemical, mechanical and social changes in agriculture.
8) i) The programme, School Feeding provided fortified biscuits that provided 6% of the nutritional needs of a child, to children in poor neighbourhoods of the country
ii) to mitigate malnutrition in underprivileged children.
9) The Country Investment Plan allocated US$8.8 billion in food security, which was funded by the government and development partners.
10) i) Food security is still a great problem despite the efforts of the government and NGOs.
ii) On average, one in three children suffers from malnutrition and consequent stunted growth.
iii) Bangladesh produces vast quantities of food, but food distribution is unequal, so measures have to be taken to remove disparity.
iv) Climate change also poses a great threat to food production due to disruptions in weather patterns, increased frequency and intensity of tropical cyclones, and rise in sea level.
2.2 Bangladesh economy secondary, tertiary/quaternary sectors and transport systems
a) Factors affecting the type and location of manufacturing (secondary sector), including rural-based craft industries.
Examples
1) textiles
2) leather
3) steel
4) cement
5) shipbuilding
Rural-based craft industries
1) small-scale, family run operations
2) originated in rural areas, but can also be found in cities now
3) produce a variety of goods such as nakshi katha, shital pati, clay dolls, metal crafts, bamboo crafts, etc.
4) use a variety of raw materials such as clay, bamboo, etc.
5) often run by women and children
Factors affecting location (physical)
1) Land
i) Large amounts of land are often required
ii) hence the cheaper lands at the edges of cities rather than at the centre, are picked to minimise costs.
2) Water
i) Industrial processes require vast quantities of water
ii) hence a location next to water bodies such as rivers, is suitable, as it ensures easy access.
3) Transport
i) Easy access to road, rail, water or air transport
ii) makes it easier to transport goods to the markets.
4) Environmental policies
i) The government discourages industries in particular locations by imposing heavy environmental policies restricting emissions
ii) hence industries are deterred from such locations, especially those that struggle to minimise emissions.
Factors affecting location (economic)
1) Labour
i) Easier access to labour with particular skills and suitable cost
ii) makes industries prefer some areas more over the other.
2) Capital
i) Amount of capital impacts the size and location of factories that can be afforded
3) Proximity to markets
i) Being close to the largest consumer market ensures minimum transportation costs
ii) which is especially important for bulky goods as they have greater transportation costs.
ii) Fragile goods need to be located close to their markets to minimise risk of breaking during transport.
4) Linked activities
i) Suppliers of components make sure to locate close to their assembly lines
ii) so as to minimise transport costs, as transport over greater distances incurs greater costs.
b) Factors affecting the type and location of formal and informal services (tertiary sector) and knowledge-based services (quaternary sector).
Examples (tertiary)
1) retailing
2) professional services such as soliciting
3) commercial services such as banking
4) administration
5) transport
6) tourism
7) hairdressing
Examples (quaternary)
1) web development
2) financial analysis
3) academic research
4) writing
5) painting
Location of tertiary + quaternary sector
1) i) Good transport facilities
ii) allow easy movement of people and goods, thus making it easier for the business to operate.
2) i) They tend to locate in urban areas
ii) as many other businesses and services are also located there, which can be potential clients
iii) thus allowing the business to thrive.
3) i) Government incentives can make them locate in particular areas
ii) due to decreased costs and increased profits.
4) i) Tend to locate in urban areas
ii) due to availability of skilled workers, as there are more educational facilities.
c) The challenges of the transport system and its impact on Bangladesh’s economic development.
Rail transport system
1) i) It can carry much larger loads of goods and people than air transport.
ii) Cost per unit distance covered is also lower.
2) i) Railways have received low maintenance and funding
ii) due to which they are old, malfunctional and overcrowded.
3) i) The rail transport system of the colonial era was adopted
ii) which does not meet modern needs as many areas have poor access
4) i) Rural urban migration causes increased demand for services
ii) which leads to overcrowding in trains.
5) i) Expansion of public transport is not able to keep up with the growth of the population
iv) hence there is great overcrowding in trains.
Road transport system
1) i) Chief mode of transport as most of the country is accessible in terms of road
ii) while rail, air and water transport are not available in large parts of the country.
2) i) Increasing number of car owners
ii) owing to natural increase and rural-urban migration
ii) leads to great traffic congestion, as there are simply more cars on the road.
3) i) A corrupt licensing system
ii) grants driving licenses to people with no prior experience.
iii) Poor driving causes greater traffic congestion and road accidents, resulting in traffic jams and injuries and death to people.
4) i) Roads are often narrow and poorly planned, and not meant to withstand the large volume of traffic
ii) hence there is great traffic congestion.
5) i) Faulty traffic signalling systems
ii) lead to ineffective decision making, resulting in traffic jams.
6) i) Due to traffic jams, a substantial proportion of working hours are spent on roads, which adversely affects the economy.
ii) In 2020, the economy lost US$6.5 billion due to working hours lost in traffic jams (ARI of BUET).
River transport
1) Seasons have a large impact on river transport, such as flooding or periods of low flow.
2) River transport is not able to serve large areas.
3) It’s slow compared to other modes of transport.
4) Physical barriers such as rapids, shallows and ayots make river transport difficult.
5) i) River transport is used primarily for the transport of heavy raw materials such as steel to factories and bulk goods such as timber, grain and coal.
iii) Although it is much slower than other forms such as air or rail, the difference is not significant for domestic transport as it usually takes less than a day,
iv) and is actually preferred since it’s much cheaper and helps save costs, especially for bulk quantities.
Challenges of the transport system (general)
1) poor investment
2) congestion
3) large areas are inaccessible
4) coping with flood events
5) poor transport infrastructure
6) limited rail network
2.3 Globalisation including (transnational corporations) TNCs, can cause rapid change for economies such as Bangladesh
a) One case study of a TNC operating in Bangladesh (global structure and networks).
b) The benefits and challenges of TNCs for the people and government of Bangladesh.
Examples of TNSs
HSBC, Unilever, Nestle, H&M
Benefits for the people/economy
1) i) TNCs offer opportunities for skilled employment,
ii) offer training programmes providing transferable skills,
iii) which increase people’s potential to earn income.
2) i) TNCs often invest in transport and communication around their factories, improve infrastructure and also bring new technology
ii) which improves quality of life for the locals.
3) i) Working with foreign individuals can expose locals to foreign work practices and new techniques
ii) which can help them be more productive in their work.
4) i) Local employees would be able to gain a broader perspective of the world by learning about various traditions, cultures and ideas, which can have an influence on local elements such as food, fashion, retail cultures, etc. impacting the economy.
Challenges for the people/economy
1) i) TNCs may introduce new customs and practices
ii) which may influence, and even be a threat to, local culture.
2) i) Some TNCs have poor health and safety regulations, minimum employment rights, poor job security
ii) so it can lead to poor health, injuries and financial instability, for local employees
3) i) TNCs often situate their factories in developing countries for access to “cheap labour”.
ii) Hence, the local employees might feel exploited.
4) i) The factories often require highly skilled labourers
ii) but these are often brought in from overseas so the local people/economy is not benefited from such employment.
5) i) TNCs can bring overwhelming competition to the local markets
ii) which can cause many businesses to shut down and have an impact on the local economy and/or make the lives of local businessmen difficult.
c) The impact of globalisation on Bangladesh (international transport and communication improvements, spread of global culture). Are there winners and losers?
Globalisation
increasing economic interdependence of countries
which are linked by trade, foreign investment and foreign aid
Impacts of globalisation
1) i) A number of foreign companies are involved in the production of primary commodities such as tea and natural gas.
ii) The American energy giant, Chevron, for example, operates a number of gas fields such as at Jalalabad, Moulvibazar and Bibiyana.
2) i) There has been increasing import of electronics and consumer goods from companies such as LG and Samsung
ii) hence providing Bangladeshi consumers access to a variety of high-quality products.
3) i) Bangladesh supplies RMG to major markets in the EU, USA and Canada, with factories established by brands such as H&M.
ii) The RMG sector provides employment to a large number of workers and makes up a substantial proportion of the country’s GDP.
4) i) Bangladesh has a large number of migrant workers, with 90% of them working in the EU and Malaysia.
ii) Employment overseas provides these people with higher incomes, enabling them to better support their families back home through remittances.
5) i) Bangladesh is home to the world’s largest mangrove forest, the Sundarbans, and the world’s longest natural sea beach, Cox’s Bazaar.
ii) These bring a large influx of tourists each year, which generates revenue for hotels, restaurants and local businesses, contributing to the economy.
6) i) It has led to the spread of global culture
ii) which is quite evident through the establishment of brands such as Burger King, Coca Cola and KFC in Bangladesh.
+ All points from TNC
2.4 The challenges of economic development for Bangladesh
a) The trade balance between imports and exports, including remittances, to ensure economic stability.
Remittances
money earned abroad
sent back home to support family
International trade of Bangladesh
1) consistent trade deficit
2) with value of imports and exports increasing slightly each year
3) major exports are RMG, prawns and fish, textiles, leather and jute
4) major imports are machinery, electronics, chemicals and petroleum
b) Challenges facing the economic development of Bangladesh (regional disparities, reliance on imported energy, loss of young skilled workers and gender equality).
Reliance on imported energy
1) i) Imported energy is expensive
ii) so it increases negative trade balance of the country
iii) which limits economic growth.
2) i) It is expensive
ii) so discourages industry
iii) which limits economic growth.
3) i) Large dependence on imported energy
ii) increases energy insecurity
iii) as it can lead to frequent shortages, due to international crises such as due to the Russia-Ukraine war.
4) i) Alternate energy sources are required to reduce dependence on imported energy
ii) for example renewable sources
iii) like wind, water, solar, etc.
Regional disparities + Loss of young skilled workers
1) i) Cities receive more investment in business than in rural areas, hence have greater economic growth.
ii) This results in great rural-urban migration as people migrate for better employment opportunities.
iii) As it is mostly young and skilled workers who are migrating, it results in a rural population that is mostly elderly and unskilled. iv) This further limits economic growth.
2) i) Cities also have more investment in transport and communication, while rural areas remain neglected.
ii) This also limits the economic development of rural areas, as there is limited movement of people and goods
iii) and encourages rural-urban migration.
3) i) Rural urban migration puts strain on services and amenities. ii) It leads to increased competition for housing and services, which creates disparities between the rich and poor.
iii) It also leads to development of more informal settlements as people struggle to afford housing.
iv) The number of employment opportunities are also reduced, causing underemployment and unemployment for many.
Gender Equality
1) i) 50.4% of Bangladesh’s population is female while 49.6% is male
ii) thus gender equality ensures that a significant portion of the population is able to contribute fully to the nation’s development and prosperity.
2) i) Females may secure well paid work
ii) so they can contribute to both the economy and their families.
3) i) Education for females ensures greater awareness of birth control and the need to reduce family size
ii) which is crucial for reducing the birth rate of the country, which is important for its development.
4) i) There is an increasing number of females in the country’s workforce, largely due to the garments industry
ii) and so many females are able to contribute more to their families and ensure education for their children and female siblings.
5) i) However, in many rural parts of the country, women are still expected to stay at home and tend for their families
ii) so they miss out on employment and educational opportunities.
c) Impact of the primary and secondary sectors on the physical environment, to include two of the following: water pollution, air pollution, waste management, deforestation, and/or soil erosion.
Water pollution
1) i) Secondary industry factories, such as paper, pharmaceuticals and tanning factories dump large amounts of industrial waste, causing contamination of water
iv) which is killing fish, decreasing biodiversity
v) reducing food security by lowering catches by fishermen, affecting their income in the process
vi) and also poisoning sources of drinking water, hence poisoning people, causing illnesses and deaths.
2) i) Primary industries spray fertilisers and pesticides on their crops carelessly, causing leak of chemicals into water bodies
ii) pesticides can poison fish and reduce biodiversity
iii) fertilisers can cause eutrophication
iii) Hence food security is reduced as fishermen get smaller catches, which also affects their incomes.
Air pollution
1) i) Factories expel vast quantities of smoke from the burning of fossil fuels
ii) not only does this smoke contains carbon dioxide which adds to the greenhouse effect, causing global warming, melting polar ice caps, increasing frequency and intensity of extreme climatic events
iii) but also gases such as sulfur dioxide which react with oxygen and water in the air, causing acid rain
iv) which kills crops and fish in water bodies, reducing food security, due to lower food production by crops, and lower fish catches by fishermen, increasing food insecurity.
v) Death of fish also reduces biodiversity, affecting the food chain and ecosystem.
2) i) Brick kilns produce smoke containing many harmful substances
ii) particularly PM 2.5, which causes irritation of the respiratory tract, coughing, sneezing, shortness of breath, etc.
iii) Concentration of PM 2.5 remains above WHO safe levels.
3) i) Mining causes air pollution
ii) because machinery burns fossil fuels, producing smoke containing carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and pollutants
iii) and dust from mining activities also contaminates the air.
Deforestation
1) i) Deforestation is done to provide land for agriculture and for industry, and also to provide timber for building.
ii) It results in destruction of habitats, loss of biodiversity
iii) degradation of soil quality
iv) increases soil erosion, as the roots of trees help hold soil in place, reducing erosion
v) and increased global warming, due to absence of trees which would’ve otherwise taken in carbon dioxide.
Section C: Challenges for Bangladesh
3.1 Indicators of development, population patterns and trends
a) The characteristics used to determine the level of development of a country: gross domestic product (GDP), demographic data (population density/structure, birth/death rates and natural increase).
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
total value of all the goods and services
produced by the country
in a year
Population density
number of people
per unit space
Population structure
shows how the population
of a given place
can be categorised into various demographic groups
Birth/Death rate
number of live births/deaths
per 1000 people in the population
in a year
Natural increase
difference between
the number of live births
and the number of deaths
over a year
b) The physical and human factors influencing the distribution, density and structure of the population of Bangladesh.
Physical factors
1) Relief
i) Crops are easier to cultivate on flat plains and are also easier to transport. Human settlement is also much easier.
ii) Hence, there’s a higher population density in the central flat plains of the country, than in the high hills in the south-east, or the low hills in the north and north-east.
2) Climate
i) Some regions of the country have less favourable rainfall than in others, hence population density is lower in those regions.
ii) The northwestern parts of the country are prone to drought, hence population density is lower as it’s more difficult to grow crops.
3) Soil fertility
i) Silt deposition along rivers makes floodplains fertile.
ii) Hence population density is greater, as crop yields are greater.
4) Availability of raw materials
i) Industries locate close to regions with abundant raw materials
ii) as a smaller distance reduces transportation costs.
iii) Thus population density is greater as people working in such industries also plan to settle close by.
5) Water
i) An abundant water supply is necessary for consumption, for agriculture and industry
ii) thus the population is greater near water bodies.
6) Natural hazards
i) places where there have been natural disasters or frequently experience such are less likely to have high populations
-added by Ammaar
Human factors
1) i) Metropolitan cities such as Dhaka or Chittagong are commercial and administrative centres with many opportunities of employment and provision of services.
ii) Remote locations of the country such as those in Bandarban lack adequate transport and communication facilities.
iii) Thus, the cities attract people from rural locations, causing great rural-urban migration, contributing to the high population densities of the cities.
iv) The population also increases due to natural increase.
v) As young and skilled workers leave rural areas in favour of urban areas due to more opportunities and higher wage jobs, it leaves behind a population made up of mostly elderly and unskilled workers, thus it limits economic growth of such regions. Lack of young people working on farms limits productivity and hence lowers income, increasing poverty.
2) i) The increasing urbanisation and expansion of Dhaka have prompted development in neighbouring cities such as Gazipur and Narayanganj
ii) Hence the population densities of these neighbouring cities are also relatively higher.
3) i) Some people might have cultural and ancestral roots in certain lands which might stop them from leaving those settlements
ii) like the Chakma and Garo populations in the hills of Chittagong
- added by Ammar
c) The trends in fertility rates, infant/maternal mortality rates, and life expectancy and their implications for service provision such as education, healthcare and employment.
Fertility rate
number of live births
per 1000 women in the population
in a year
Factors decreasing fertility rate
1) i) Increased education for females is increasing awareness of birth control methods
ii) which means that more females choose to have less children.
2) i) Increasing availability of contraceptives
ii) allows more people to choose to have less children.
3) i) Increasing living costs make it difficult to raise children
ii) which means people are choosing to have less children.
4) i) More women are choosing to marry later
ii) so their childbearing time is less, hence they are able to have less children.
Factors decreasing infant mortality rate
1) Improved healthcare facilities are able to better resolve problems such as prematurity and difficulty breathing in newborn babies, thus reducing their risk of death.
2) Severe malnutrition can cause brain damage, hypoglycemia, and a weak immune system, thus reduction in malnutrition reduces risk of death from such complications.
3) Better antenatal and postnatal care helps prevent birth complications, thus decreasing risk of death from them.
Factors decreasing maternal mortality rate
1) An increase in and improved access to skilled doctors and nurses ensures that childbirth can be carried out effectively.
2) Better antenatal and postnatal care helps prevent birth complications, thus decreasing risk of death from them.
3) Improvements in healthcare means that complications from childbirth can be better treated, thus reducing risk of death
Life expectancy
average
remaining years of life
at a given age
Factors increasing life expectancy
1) i) increased access to healthcare such as medicines and drugs such as antibiotics, as well as healthcare facilities
ii) can reduce risk of death from fatal diseases
2) i) increased education
ii) can prompt people to seek balanced diets, avoiding drugs, smoking, thus improving their health and decreasing mortality
3) i) rising income of the population
ii) can lead to increased education
iii) and better access to healthcare
Infant mortality rate
number of deaths of children under the age of one year
per 1000 live births in the population
in a year
Maternal mortality rate
number of mothers who die giving childbirth
per 100,000 live births in the population
in a year
Mortality rate
number of deaths
per 1000 people in the population
in a year
Factors reducing mortality rates
1) i) increased access to healthcare services
ii) and improved healthcare facilities
iii) means a lower risk of death from fatal diseases
2) i) increased education
ii) can prompt people to seek healthier diets, avoid smoking and drugs, decreasing mortality
3) i) rising income
ii) can help people improve their diets
iii) and increase their access to healthcare
4) i) better access to nutrition
ii) means that less people die due to malnutrition or poor diets
5) i) better access to clean water and improved sanitation
ii) means that the spread of diseases such as cholera and typhoid is reduced
3.2 Quality of life in rural Bangladesh: challenges of life in rural communities
a) Human Development Index (HDI) factors influencing the ‘quality of life’ for different groups within Bangladesh: years of schooling, per capita income and life expectancy.
Factors used to calculate HDI
Years of schooling
mean years of schooling completed
and expected years of schooling upon entering the education system
Per capita income
average income per person
in a given region
in a year
Life expectancy
average remaining years of life
at a given age
b) Challenges facing Bangladeshi’s rural population: population structure of rural communities, poverty, education, gender equality, subsistence agriculture and rural-based craft industries, and impact of remittances
Challenges facing Bangladesh’s rural population
1) i) Lack of young people working in farms
ii) because they have migrated to cities
iii) for better employment opportunities.
iv) Skilled workers often migrate to cities for higher wages.
v) This means that there are mostly elderly and unskilled people remaining in the rural communities, thus economic growth is limited.
2) i) Rural population is affected by poverty
ii) because there are not many high-wage employment opportunities
iii) leading to many families being under the poverty line.
3) i) Due to a patriarchal society
ii) women are expected to stay at home and tend the family
iii) so they miss out on education and employment opportunities.
iv) However the garments industry is providing women with great employment opportunities, and the income earned can be used to provide education to female siblings and children within the family.
4) i) Widespread practice of subsistence farming
ii) limits surplus production of crops
iii) thus limiting disposable income
iv) lowering opportunity of starting their own businesses
5) i) Educational facilities are mostly situated in the cities
ii) and rural areas are neglected
iii) so people have fewer opportunities for education
iv) hence can’t gain the skills required for higher income jobs.
6) i) Lack of medical professionals and facilities
ii) and great distance to good healthcare facilities
iii) means rural people have poor access to healthcare.
7) i) Rural based craft industries and cottage industries
ii) are often run by women and children in the family.
iii) Although it provides the family with income
iv) the children miss out on education, which limits high-wage skilled employment opportunities in the future.
Impact of remittances
1) i) It can help provide families with disposable incomes
ii) with which they can start businesses
iii) which can help mitigate the negative trade balance of the country.
2) i) Income increases family’s access to education
ii) allowing the family to to pursue high-skilled jobs
iii) which provide higher incomes, ensuring a better quality of life.
3) i) Income can be used to invest in farming equipment
ii) which can be used to provide higher yields
iii) which can help overcome rural poverty.
c) Incentives and strategies to support rural communities.
1) i) The FAO has worked with rural communities in Chittagong to teach them about household farming, poultry farming, more advanced farming practices, use of good quality seeds, etc.
ii) which helped ensure food security for them.
2) i) The government, as well as NGOs, have helped solar energy units in remote parts of the country
ii) to help rural communities access power, through solar energy, where electricity lines cannot easily reach.
3) i) Both the government and NGOs have helped support rural families through microfinance programmes
ii) which have helped them start their own businesses and earn income, improving their quality of life
iii) allowing them to move away from subsistence agriculture.
4) i) Financial incentives have been introduced for health workers
ii) in an attempt to increase their numbers in rural areas
iii) improving access to healthcare for rural communities, reducing mortality rates.
5) i) There has also been great investment in educational facilities
ii) which has improved access to education for rural communities
iii) thus increasing scope of skilled high-income employment for children, improving the quality of life of themselves and their families in the future.
6) i) The government has helped supply various machines to rural farmers, such as combine harvesters, rice planters, etc. through the project titled “Mechanisation of Agricultural Work through Integrated Management”
ii) to help boost agricultural productivity, improving their income and quality of life.
3.3 Quality of life in urban Bangladesh: challenges of life in urban communities
a) Rapid population growth creates opportunities and challenges for people living in large cities: housing, employment, quality of services (water, sanitation, energy supplies, health etc.), traffic congestion and pollution.
Opportunities due to rapid population growth in large cities
1) i) Increasing number of secondary and tertiary sector businesses in large cities is providing many employment opportunities
ii) allowing residents to lift themselves out of poverty into the middle class.
2) i) Increased investment in, healthcare, education, infrastructure and facilities
ii) improves quality of life for people
3) i) Improved healthcare and sanitation facilities
ii) reduces risk of spread of disease.
4) i) TNCs are attracted to urban areas due to easy access to labour
ii) thus workers get an opportunity to learn about international work practices and cultures.
Challenges due to rapid population growth in large cities
1) i) Increased car ownership owing to rapid population growth
ii) leads to greater traffic congestion.
2) i) High population densities results in unemployment and underemployment for many people
ii) and also scarcity of resources such as food, water and energy
iii) Competition for the scarce supply of housing and services
iv) leads to great inequality in society between those wealthy and those less so
3) i) Demand for housing increases vastly, outstripping supply
ii) causing a lot of informal housing to spring up, which often have poor electricity and water supply, and poor sanitation.
4) i) Many harmful gases and pollutants are emitted by the great number of factories and also vehicles.
ii) Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming through the greenhouse effect, inflicting climate change
iv) Pollutants in the smoke worsen the air quality of Dhaka, and have a negative impact on people's healths, increasing risk of diseases such as asthma and bronchitis, thus increasing mortality.
5) i) Despite the government’s efforts for planned development of cities such as through the Dhaka City Master Plan or the Chittagong City Master Plan
ii) cities have experienced unplanned growth, with buildings springing up in unassigned zones
iii) leading to great congestion of people and traffic.
5) i) Rapid population growth results in vast amounts of electricity being used up, as the population uses various appliances such as computers, phones, fridges, televisions, etc.
ii) These deplete the energy resources of our country and increase reliance on imports from other countries, contributing to the negative trade balance of the country, limiting economic growth.
6) i) Many people in urban settlements, particularly in slums, have poor access to safe drinking water.
ii) Unsanitary water sources can lead to spread of diseases such as cholera and typhoid, causing deaths.
iii) Groundwater reserves are depleted by uptake of water by industries, particularly around Dhaka
iv) which reduces access to drinking water by the population, and also increases intensity of arsenic contamination.
b) Case study of the particular challenges and opportunities in one megacity (Dhaka).
c) Government (top-down) and NGO/local community (bottom-up) strategies in response to the challenges of living in large urban areas.
Bottom-up (NGOs)
1) i) NGOs have helped improve the quality of housing in informal settlements and increased access to services such as electricity, water, etc.
ii) WaterAid has helped improve sanitation systems and increased access to safe drinking water in many informal settlements in Dhaka, Khulna and Chittagong.
2) They’ve helped provide small loans to families through microfinance programs so that they can start their own businesses, earn more income, and have a better quality of life.
3) They’ve helped provide health clinics, especially prenatal and postnatal healthcare, to informal settlements where there is poor access.
4) i) They've helped ensure access to education, particularly primary education, to underprivileged communities, so that they have better access to skilled jobs which can provide them higher incomes and a better quality of life.
ii) BRAC
Top-down (Government)
1) Bangladesh Vision 2021 and Perspective Plan 2010-2021 planned to tackle many of the problems faced by the cities, such as overcrowding and traffic congestion, by setting a framework for their development.
2) i) The National Housing Policy 1933 recognised the need for shelter, and prohibited the forced clearance of slums
ii) however local authorities in some places have attempted to destroy slums and remove their people, which did not work as they simply relocated to other informal settlements, or rebuilt their destroyed slums.
iii) The government has worked to provide access to safe drinking water, and built public toilets for sanitation, reducing the spread of diseases in slums.
iv) However, these measures have only reached a small percentage of the slums so far.
3) i) Dhaka is among the cities with the worst air quality in the world.
ii) Bangladesh had backed a World Bank project on Clean Air and Sustainable Environment
iii) to reduce air pollution by brick kilns by making more energy-efficient and clean brick kilns
iv) and to make more safe pedestrian crossings to reduce traffic.
v) Since 2010, the government had banned fixed chimney brick kilns vi) but regulations such as these are often not strictly enforced
vii) for example, wood continues to be burned as firewood every year, although it has been banned since 1989 to do so.
4) i) The Dhaka Metro has been built to provide mass transit between various parts of Dhaka such as Uttara, Mirpur, Motijheel and Kawran Bazar, with new links under construction.
ii) It has been built as a remedy to the scarce transport services of the country, helping alleviate overcrowding in existing transport services such as rail or bus
iii) and providing fast transport to minimise economic losses due to hours lost in traffic jams.
3.4 Present and future impacts of climate change on the people, economy and environment of Bangladesh and possible mitigation strategies
a) Causes of climate change and recent global warming (last century).
Causes
1) Increased carbon dioxide levels due to various human activities, contributes to the greenhouse effect, causing global warming, thus inflicting climate change. Such activities include
i) burning of fossil fuels
ii) increased vehicle ownership and use
iii) deforestation, which causes less carbon dioxide to be removed from the atmosphere, resulting in higher levels of CO2.
2) Intensive pastoral agriculture results in the release of large amounts of methane, which contributes to the greenhouse effect.
3) Increased sunspot activity increases the amount of solar radiation, and thus the greenhouse effect is intensified.
b) Impacts of climate change on Bangladesh’s people, economy and environment (more extreme weather, increased frequency and strength of tropical cyclones, increased glacial ablation and river discharge, flooding and sea-level rises).
People
1) i) Fluctuations in weather patterns would cause irregular rainfall and droughts.
ii) It is predicted that northwest regions of the country would be more prone to drought, and northeast regions, to delayed rainfall.
ii) These would affect plant growth, lowering crop yields
iii) hence lowering income for farmers, worsening their quality of life.
2) i) Increased frequency and intensity of cyclones due to global warming
ii) would lead to more flooding through heavy rainfall and storm surges, as well as intense winds
iii) which would destroy villages, rendering many people homeless.
iv) Crop farms and fish farms would get destroyed, leading to lower food security, and lower income for farmers.
v) Cyclone Amphan, for example, made 500,000 people homeless. 40,800 fish farmers sustained a net loss of US$25.6 million due to damages to crab, finfish and shrimp farms (an estimate by the Department of Fisheries).
3) i) Death and injuries due to intense climatic events such as cyclones, through the falling of trees, lightning, landfalls, etc.
ii) can have a great impact on a number of families.
iv) One of the most deadly cyclones in Bangladesh, Cyclone Sidr, resulted in 3500 deaths.
4) i) Destruction of infrastructure such as roads and bridges, as well as cell towers
ii) has a great impact on transport and communication in the affected areas, making lives difficult.
iii) For example, Cyclone Amphan disabled roughly 2500 phone towers of AMTOB and destroyed over 200 bridges.
5) i) Global warming is melting polar ice caps
ii) causing sea levels to rise.
iv) 28% of the population lives on the coast.
v) By 2050, a 50cm rise in water level is predicted, which would affect 11% of the land of Bangladesh, forcing 18 million to migrate.
vi) This would not only cause homelessness, but would put strain on the supply of housing and services at the centre.
Economy
1) i) i) Climate change resilience strategies involve large amounts of government spending
ii) which diverts funds from provision of services and economic development schemes
iii) From 1980 to 2020, the government spent US$10 billion dollars on climate change resilience strategies.
iv) Current rate of spending is 7% of the annual budget.
v) Frequency of extreme climatic events such as cyclones and intense rainfall would increase
vi) causing deaths of many people affecting the country’s workforce
vii) destruction of government property, costing the government millions in repairs
viii) and even greater diversion of funds for climate resilience strategies.
2) i) Sea level rise would inundate large areas of agricultural and industrial land, causing destruction of crops, shutting down of factories, etc.
ii) which would lead to decrease in exports, contributing to the negative trade balance of the country.
4) i) Fluctuations in weather patterns owing to climate change would cause droughts, and poor or irregular rainfall
ii) affecting plant growth, causing poor crop yields, hence lower export of agricultural produce
iii) thus contributing the negative trade balance of the country
iv) especially since Bangladesh has an agrarian economy.
5) i) Rise in sea level and storm surges from cyclones cause saline intrusion
ii) which affects agricultural practices, damages crops, causes soil degradation, thus reducing food security and also income for farmers
iii) freshwater sources such as ponds also get contaminated, resulting in lack of drinking water.
Environment
1) i) Melting of polar ice caps would cause sea levels to rise
ii) More than half of Bangladesh lies less than 5m above sea level.
iii) A rise in sea level of 1m would submerge 15% of the country.
iv) Saline intrusion would also increase.
2) i) Frequency and intensity of cyclones and storms would increase
ii) and as a result, storm surges and floods will be more common
iii) which will damage the mangrove forests of Bangladesh, killing animals such as deer along with it
iv) and also fish
v) causing loss of biodiversity and disruption of the food chain, thus damaging the ecosystem.
vi) Buildings and infrastructure will also suffer great damage.
3) i) Global temperatures will rise, causing melting of the Himalayan glaciers
ii) causing greater river discharge in rivers such as the Ganges, that originate from the Himalayas
iii) thus increasing flooding.
c) Local actions and government strategies (in the context of international strategies) to mitigate and adapt to the challenges of climate change.
Local actions
1) i) Increased rainfall due to cyclones and increased river discharge due to melting of Himalayan glaciers, is increasing river bank erosion, affecting many rural communities living along the rivers and their tributaries.
ii) Some village communities have built fence-like structures made of bamboo known as “bandals” to protect the banks of their rivers.
iii) These bandals, built every few hundred metres, help shift the main course of the river away from the banks, preventing bank erosion and helping recovery of land.
iv) This method is also cheap and affordable for the villagers.
2) i) Waterlogging of soil due to increased flooding caused by sea level rise and increased rainfall from cyclones makes agriculture difficult.
ii) Some local farmers have adopted Baira, the practice of building agricultural beds made with water hyacinth and soil, and growing crops on them.
iii) A variety of crops can be grown using this method such as cauliflower, chilli, ginger, cucumber, potatoes, etc. thus ensuring food security and income for farmers even when soil is waterlogged.
3) i) Saline intrusion is increasing due to storm surges and sea level rise, rendering it difficult to grow crops in regions with high salinity of water.
ii) Some rural communities have started farming mud crabs which thrive in these conditions, thus providing them with a source of protein and also a good source of income.
4) i) Bangladesh Climate Change Resilience Fund allocates funds to NGOs and local communities through the Community Climate Change Project.
ii) NGOs help organise and carry out various projects at local level, that involve building of houses on stilts to avoid floodwater, planting more flood and drought resistant crops, strengthening embankments, etc.
5) i) The national climate change strategy involves organising efforts all across the country, by the government, local communities, and NGOs. It also involves ensuring support of many stakeholders, beyond just individual households and local communities.
6) i) Besides local actions, the government also plays an important role, such as building embankments and sea walls, to manage flooding and increased rainfall.
ii) International governments play a role in carrying out environmental policies to reduce their carbon footprint, and hence reduce the severity of climate change in the future.
International governments
1) i) Carbon taxes placed on various factories
ii) are encouraging many businesses to find ways to reduce their carbon footprints by adopting cleaner technology.
iii) By implementing a national carbon tax in 1991, Sweden was successful in bringing down its carbon footprint by 27%, which shows its effectiveness.
iv) More than 40 countries have implemented national carbon taxes, including Argentina, Japan, Singapore and Canada.
v) However, these carbon taxes can have adverse effects on consumers, since businesses might react by increasing their prices.
2) i) Cap and trade is a government program similar to carbon taxes, in which businesses are allowed to emit a set amount of carbon dioxide, per permit they purchase from the government.
ii) These permits not only discourage companies from emitting carbon dioxide, but also provide the government revenue, which it can use for clean energy initiatives.
iii) Cap and trade systems have been implemented by all countries in the EU, by China, and 13 states in the US.
iv) In 2013, California implemented cap and trade systems, which helped bring down its carbon dioxide emissions by 10% by 2018.
3) i) Clean energy targets have been set in many countries to decrease carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning.
ii) For example, in 2018, Costa Rica was able to run entirely on renewable sources of energy for 300 consecutive days, which is the world record so far.
iii) Due to lack of technology, most countries are not able to produce such remarkable feats, but it’s essential that they start leaning more towards green energy.
4) i) International agreements bring nations together to battle climate change as a unified force.
ii) The Paris Agreement was signed by almost all countries of the world, where each country set a legally binding agreement to achieve climate change goals, with over 60 countries pledging to reach net-zero emissions by 2060.
iii) Goals such as these ensure that countries around the world take steps to reduce climate change on their end.
5) i) Governments around the world are taking measures to adapt to the unique challenges of climate change they each face.
ii) In 2007, Rotterdam launched the Room for the River Programme to streamline the water flow of its rivers to prevent flooding.
iii) In 2013, Ahmedabad created an effective Heat Action Plan that involved raising public awareness and establishing an early warning system that helped prevent a substantial number of deaths in future heat waves.