Sigmund Freud the 6th of May 1856 to the 23rd of September 1939 was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis a clinical method for treating Psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiburg in the Austrian Empire he qualified as a doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna upon completing his habilitation in 1885 he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an Affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. in 1938 Freud left Austria to escape Nazi persecution he died in Exile in the United Kingdom in 1939. in founding psychoanalysis Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference establishing its Central role in the analytic process Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantil forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory his analysis of dreams as wish fulfillments provided him with models for the clinical analysis of symptom formation in the underlying mechanisms of repression on this basis Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id ego and superego Freud postulated the existence of libido sexualized energy with which mental processes and structures are invested in which generates erotic attachments and a death Drive the source of compulsive repetition hate aggression and neurotic guilt in his later works Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture though an overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology Psychiatry and Psychotherapy and across the humanities it thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate concerning its therapeutic efficacy its scientific status and whether it advances or hinders the feminist cause nonetheless Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture wh auden's 1940 poetic tribute to Freud describes him as having created a whole climate of opinion under whom we conduct our different lives biography early life and education Freud was born to Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiburg in the Austrian Empire now prybor Czech Republic the first of eight children both of his parents were from Galicia a historic Province straddling modern-day West Ukraine and Southeast Poland his father Jacob Freud 1815-1896 a wool Merchant had two sons Emmanuel 1833-1914 and Philip 1836-1911 by his first marriage Jacob's family were Hasidic Jews and although Jacob himself had moved away from the tradition he came to be known for his Torah study he and Freud's mother Amalia Nathanson who was 20 years younger and his third wife were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah manheimer on the 29th of July 1855. they were struggling financially and living in a rented room in a locksmith's house at schlossergas 117 when their son Sigmund was born he was born with a call which his mother saw as a positive Omen for the boy's future in 1859 the Freud family left Freiburg Freud's half-brothers immigrated to Manchester England parting him from the Inseparable Playmate of his early childhood Emmanuel's son John Jacob Freud took his wife and two children Freud's sister Anna was born in 1858. a brother Julius born in 1857 had died in infancy firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born Rosa B 1860 Marie B 1861 adelphine B 1862 Paula B 1864 Alexander B 1866 in 1865 the nine-year-old Freud entered the leopolstadter communal real gymnasium a prominent High School he proved to be an outstanding pupil and graduated from the matura in 1873 with honors he loved literature and was proficient in German French Italian Spanish English Hebrew Latin and Greek Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. he had planned to study law but joined the Medical Faculty at the University where his studies included philosophy under Franz brentano physiology under Ernst Brooke and zoology under darwinist Professor Carl Claus in 1876 Freud spent four weeks at klaus's Zoological research station in Trieste dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs in 1877 Freud moved to Ernst Brooks physiology laboratory where he spent six years comparing the brains of humans and other vertebrates with those of frogs and invertebrates such as crayfish and lampreys his research work on the biology of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent discovery of the neuron in the 1890s Freud's research work was interrupted in 1879 by the obligation to undertake a Year's compulsory military service the lengthy downtimes enabled him to complete a commission to translate four essays from John Stuart Mill's collected works he graduated with an MD in March 1881 early career and marriage in 1882 Freud began his medical career at the Vienna General Hospital his research work in cerebral Anatomy led to the publication of an influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine in 1884 in his work on Aphasia would form the basis of his first book on Aphasia a critical study published in 1891. over a three-year period Freud worked in various Departments of the hospital his time spent in theater Maynard Psychiatric clinic and is a Locum in a local Asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work his substantial body of published research led to his appointment as a university lecturer or docent in neuropathology in 1885 a non-salaried post but one which entitled him to give lectures at the University of Vienna in 1886 Freud resigned his Hospital post and entered Private Practice specializing in nervous disorders the same year he married Martha Bernays the granddaughter of Isaac Bernays a chief Rabbi in Hamburg they had six children Matilda B 1887 Jean Martin B 1889 Oliver B 1891 Ernst B 1892 Sophie B 1893 and Anna B 1895 from 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938 Freud and his family lived in an apartment at Burgas 19 near innerstadt a historical district of Vienna in 1896 Mina Bernays Martha Freud's sister became a permanent member of the Freud household after the death of her fiancee the close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumors started by Carl Jung of an affair the discovery of a Swiss hotel guest book entry for the 13th of August 1898 signed by Freud whilst traveling with his sister-in-law has been presented as evidence of the affair Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24. initially a cigarette smoker he became a cigar smoker he believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise self-control in moderating it despite Health warnings from colleague Wilhelm fleece he remained a smoker eventually suffering a buccal cancer Freud suggested to fleece in 1897 that addictions including that to Tobacco were substitutes for masturbation the one great habit dot Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor brentano who was known for his theories of perception and introspection brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his Psychology from an empirical standpoint although brentano denied its existence his discussion of the unconscious probably helped introduce Freud to the concept Freud owned and made use of Charles Darwin's major evolutionary writings and was also influenced by eduard Von Hartman's the philosophy of the unconscious other texts of importance to Freud were by fechner and Herbert with the latter psychology as science arguably considered to be of underrated significance in this respect Freud also Drew on the work of theater lips who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy though Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic insights with prior philosophical theories attention has been drawn to analogies between his work and that of both schopenhauer and Nietzsche in 1908 Freud said that he occasionally read Nietzsche and had a strong Fascination for his writings but did not study him because he found Nietzsche's intuitive insights resembled too much his own work at the time and also because he was overwhelmed by the wealth of ideas he encountered when he read Nietzsche Freud sometimes would deny the influence of Nietzsche's ideas one historian quotes Peter L radnitsky who says that based on Freud's correspondence with his adolescent friend eduard silberstein Freud read niches the birth of tragedy and probably the first two of the untimely meditations when he was 17. in 1900 the year of Nietzsche's death Freud bought his collected works he told his friend fleece that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works the words for much that remains mute in me later he said he had not yet opened them Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied his interest in philosophy declined after he had decided on a career in neurology Freud read William Shakespeare in English throughout his life and it has been suggested that his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays Freud's Jewish Origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral Outlook especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism as he was the first to point out in his autobiographical study they would also have a substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and the bounding of Desire by law development of psychoanalysis in October 1885 Freud went to Paris on a three-month Fellowship to study with Jean Martin Shaco a renowned neurologist who was conducting scientific research into hypnosis he was later to recall the experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical Psychopathology in a way from a less financially promising career in neurology research o specialized in the study of Hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience once he had set up in private practice back in Vienna in 1886 Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work he adopted the approach of his friend and collaborator Joseph Brewer in a type of hypnosis that was different from the French methods he had studied in that it did not use suggestion the treatment of one particular patient of Brewers proved to be transformative for Freud's clinical practice described as Anna o she was invited to talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis she would coin the phrase talking cure for her treatment in the course of talking in this way her symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset the inconsistent results of Freud's early clinical work eventually led him to abandon hypnosis having concluded that more consistent and effective symptom relief could be achieved by encouraging patients to talk freely without censorship or inhibition about whatever ideas or memories occurred to them in conjunction with this procedure which he called free association Freud found that patients dreams could be fruitfully analyzed to reveal the complex structuring of unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of repression which he had concluded underlay's symptom formation by 1896 he was using the term psychoanalysis to refer to his new clinical method in the theories on which it was based Freud's development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced heart irregularities disturbing dreams and periods of depression at neurosthenia which he linked to the death of his father in 1896 and which prompted a self-analysis of his own dreams and memories of childhood his explorations of his feelings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over his mother's affections led him to fundamentally revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses based on his early clinical work Freud had postulated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were a necessary precondition for the psycho neuroses hysteria and obsessional Neurosis a formulation now known as Freud's seduction theory in the light of his self-analysis Freud abandoned the theory that every Neurosis can be traced back to the effects of infantile sexual abuse now arguing that infantil sexual scenarios still had a causative function but it did not matter whether they were real or imagined and that in either case they became pathogenic only when acting as repressed memories this transition from the theory of infantil sexual trauma is a general explanation of how all neuroses originate to one that presupposes autonomous infantil sexuality provided the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the theory of the Oedipus Complex Freud described the evolution of his clinical method and set out his theory of the psychogenetic origins of Hysteria demonstrated in several case histories in studies on hysteria published in 1895 co-authored with Joseph Brewer in 1899 he published the interpretation of Dreams in which following a critical review of existing Theory Freud gives detailed interpretations of his own and his patient's dreams in terms of wish fulfillments made subject to the repression and censorship of that DreamWork he then sets out the theoretical model of mental structure the unconscious pre-conscious and conscious on which this account is based an Abridged version on dreams was published in 1901. in works that would win him a more General readership Freud applied his theories outside the clinical setting in the Psychopathology of everyday life and jokes and their relation to the unconscious in three essays on the theory of sexuality published in 1905 Freud elaborates his theory of infantil sexuality describing its polymorphous perverse forms and the functioning of the drives to which it gives rise in the formation of sexual identity the same year he published fragment of an analysis of a case of Hysteria which became one of his more famous and controversial case studies relationship with fleece during this formative period of his work Freud valued and came to rely on the intellectual and emotional support of his friend Wilhelm fleece a berlin-based ear nose and throat specialist whom he had first met in 1887. both men saw themselves as isolated from the prevailing clinical and theoretical mainstream because of their Ambitions to develop radical new theories of sexuality fleece developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection which are today considered pseudoscientific he shared Freud's views on the importance of certain aspects of sexuality masturbation coyus interruptus and the use of condoms in the etiology of what was then called the actual neuroses primarily neuristthenia and certain physically manifested anxiety symptoms they maintained an extensive correspondence from which Freud Drew on fleece's speculations on infantil sexuality and bisexuality to elaborate and revise his own ideas his first attempt at a systematic theory of the mind his project for a scientific Psychology was developed as a metapsychology with fleece as interlocutor however Freud's efforts to build a bridge between neurology and psychology were eventually abandoned after they had reached an impasse as his letters to fleece reveal though some ideas of the project were to be taken up again in the concluding chapter of the interpretation of Dreams Freud had fleece repeatedly operate on his nose and sinuses to treat nasal reflex neurosis and subsequently referred his patient Emma Eckstein to him According to Freud her history of symptoms included severe leg pains with consequent restricted Mobility as well as stomach and menstrual pains these pains were according to fleece's theories caused by habitual masturbation which as the tissue of the nose and genitalia were linked was curable by removal of part of The Middle turbinate fleece's surgery proved disastrous resulting in profuse recurrent nasal bleeding he had left a half meter of gauze in eckstein's nasal cavity whose subsequent removal left her permanently disfigured at first though aware of fleece's culpability and regarding the remedial surgery in horror Freud could bring himself only to intimate delicately in his correspondence with fleece the nature of his disastrous role and in subsequent letters maintained a tactful silence on the matter or else returned to the face-saving topic of eckstein's Hysteria Freud ultimately in light of eckstein's history of Adolescent self-cutting and irregular nasal and menstrual bleeding concluded that fleece was completely Without Blame as eckstein's post-operative hemorrhages were hysterical wish bleedings linked to an old wish to be loved in her illness and triggered as a means of rearousing Freud's affection Eckstein nonetheless continued her analysis with Freud she was restored to full mobility and went on to practice psychoanalysis herself Freud who had called fleece the Kepler of biology later concluded that a combination of a homoerotic attachment in the residue of his specifically Jewish mysticism lay behind his loyalty to his Jewish friend and his consequent overestimation of both his theoretical and clinical work their friendship came to an acrimonious end with fleece angry at Freud's unwillingness to endorse his general theory of sexual periodicity in accusing him of collusion in the plagiarism of his work after fleece failed to respond to Freud's offer of collaboration over the publication of his three essays on the theory of sexuality in 1906 the relationship came to an end early followers in 1902 Freud at last realized his long-standing ambition to be made a university professor the title Professor extraordinarius was important to Freud for the recognition and Prestige it conferred there being no salary or teaching duties attached to the post he would be granted the enhanced status of Professor ordinarius in 1920. despite support from the University his appointment had been blocked in successive years by the political authorities and it was secured only with the intervention of one of his more influential ex-patients a baroness Marie furstle who had to bribe the minister of Education with a valuable painting with his Prestige thus enhanced Freud continued with the regular series of lectures on his work which since the mid-1880s as a docent of Vienna University he had been delivering to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the University's Psychiatric clinic from the Autumn of 1902 a number of Viennese Physicians who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology this group was called the Wednesday psychological Society psychologist mitwax gaselschaft and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement Freud founded this discussion group at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm steckel steckel had studied medicine at the University of Vienna under Richard Von Kraft ebbing his conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as a result of his reading the interpretation of dreams to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese Daily Newspaper noise weiner tagblatt the other three original members whom Freud invited to attend Alfred Adler Max kahane and Rudolf reitler were also Physicians and all five were Jewish by birth both kahane and reitler were childhood friends of Freud kahane had attended the same secondary school and both he and reitler went to University with Freud they had kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas through their attendance at his Saturday evening lectures in 1901 kahane who first introduced steckel to Freud's work had opened an outpatient Psychotherapy Institute of which he was the director in bowenmarkt in Vienna in the same year his medical textbook outline of internal medicine for students and practicing Physicians was published in it he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in dorothier gas which had been founded in 1901. he died prematurely in 1917. Adler regarded as the most formidable intellect among the early Freud Circle was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade he was particularly interested in the potential social impact of Psychiatry by 1906 the group had grown to 16 members including Otto rank who was employed as the group's paid secretary in the same year Freud began a correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was by then already an academically acclaimed researcher into word association in the galvanic skin response and a lecturer at Zurich University although still only an assistant to Eugene bluler at the bergholtzley mental hospital in Zurich in March 1907 Jung and Ludwig Binswanger also a Swiss psychiatrist traveled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group thereafter they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zurich in 1908 reflecting its growing institutional status the Wednesday group was reconstituted as the Vienna psychoanalytic Society with Freud as president a position he relinquished in 1910 in favor of Adler in the hope of neutralizing his increasingly critical standpoint the first woman member Marguerite hilfording joined the society in 1910 in the following year she was joined by Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina spielrain who were both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of the Zurich University Medical School before the completion of her studies spielrain had been a patient of Jung at the bergholtz Lee in the clinical and personal details of their relationship became the subject of an extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung both women would go on to make important contributions to the work of the Russian psychoanalytic Society founded in 1910. Freud's early followers met together formally for the first time at the hotel Bristol Salzburg on the 27th of April 1908. this meeting which was retrospectively deemed to be the first International psychoanalytic Congress was convened at the suggestion of Ernest Jones then a london-based neurologist who had discovered Freud's writings and begun applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met up again in Zurich to organize the Congress there were as Jones records 42 present half of whom were or became practicing analysts in addition to Jones and the Viennese and Zurich contingents accompanying Freud and Jung also present and notable for their subsequent importance in the psychoanalytic movement were Carl Abraham and Max itingen from Berlin sandor farenci from Budapest in the new york-based Abraham Brill important decisions were taken at the Congress to advance the impact of Freud's work a journal the jarvik for a psychoanalytic Shoon Psychopathology forshungen was launched in 1909 under the editorship of Jung this was followed in 1910 by the monthly centralblatt fur psychoanalyze edited by Adler and steckel in 1911 by omego a journal devoted to the application of psychoanalysis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rank and in 1913 by the international zeitshrift fur psychoanalyze also edited by rank plans for an International Association of psychoanalysts were put in place and these were implemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung was elected with Freud's support as its first president Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world both were invited to Vienna following the Salzburg Congress and a division of labor was agreed with Brill given the translation rights for Freud's works and Jones who was to take up a post at the University of Toronto later in the year tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideas in North American academic and medical life Jones's advocacy prepared the way for Freud's visit to the United States accompanied by Jung and ferency in September 1909 at the invitation of Stanley Hall president of Clark University Worcester Massachusetts where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis the event at which Freud was awarded an honorary doctorate marked the first public recognition of Freud's work and attracted widespread media interest Freud's audience included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson Putnam professor of diseases of the nervous system at Harvard who invited Freud to his country Retreat where they held extensive discussions over a period of four days subsequent public endorsement of Freud's work represented a significant breakthrough for the psychoanalytic cause in the United States when Putnam and Jones organized the founding of the American psychoanalytic Association in May 1911 they were elected president and secretary respectively Brill founded the New York psychoanalytics Society the same year his English translations of Freud's work began to appear from 1909. resignations from the IPA some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the International psychoanalytical Association IPA and founded their own schools from 1909 Adler's views on topics such as Neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud as Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with freudianism a series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. in February 1911 Adler then the president of the society resigned his position at this time steckel also resigned from his position as vice president of the society Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to found his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from the group this new formation was initially called Society for free psychoanalysis but it was soon renamed the society for individual psychology in the period after World War One Adler became increasingly associated with a psychological position he devised called individual psychology in 1912 Jung published one London zamboli de libido published in English in 1916 a psychology of the unconscious making it clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud to distinguish his system from psychoanalysis Jung called it analytical psychology anticipating the final breakdown of the relationship between Freud and Jung Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a secret Committee of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical coherence and institutional Legacy of the psychoanalytic movement formed in the Autumn of 1912 the committee comprised Freud Jones Abraham farency Rank and Hans Sachs Max itingen joined the committee in 1919. each member pledged himself not to make any public departure from the fundamental tenets of psychoanalytic theory before he had discussed his views with the others after this development Jung recognized that his position was untenable and resigned as editor of the jarvik and then as president of the IPA in April 1914. the Zurich Society withdrew from the IPA the following July later the same year Freud published a paper entitled the history of the psychoanalytic movement the German original being first published in the jarbeck giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and the withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it the final defection from Freud's Inner Circle occurred following the publication in 1924 of ranks the trauma of birth which other members of the committee read as in effect abandoning the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytic theory Abraham and Jones became increasingly forceful critics of rank and though he and Freud were reluctant to end their close and long-standing relationship the break finally came in 1926 when rank resigned from his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris his place on the committee was taken by Anna Freud rank eventually settled in the United States where his revisions of Freudian Theory were to influence a new generation of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of the IPA early psychoanalytic movement after the founding of the IPA in 1910 an international network of psychoanalytical societies training institutes and Clinics became well-established and a regular schedule of bi-annual congresses commenced after the end of World War One to coordinate their activities Abraham and itingen founded the Berlin psychoanalytics Society in 1910 and then the Berlin psychoanalytic Institute and the Polyclinic in 1920. the polyclinics Innovations of free treatment and child analysis and the Berlin Institute standardization of psychoanalytic training had a major influence on The Wider psychoanalytic movement in 1927 Ernst simmel founded the Schloss tegel sanatorium on the outskirts of Berlin the first such establishment to provide psychoanalytic treatment in an Institutional framework Freud organized a fund to help Finance its activities in his architect's son Ernst was commissioned to refurbish the building it was forced to close in 1931 for economic reasons the 1910 Moscow psychoanalytics Society became the Russian psychoanalytics society and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers were the first to benefit from translations of his work the 1904 Russian translation of the interpretation of Dreams appearing nine years before brill's English edition the Russian Institute was unique in receiving State support for its activities including publication of translations of Freud's works support was abruptly annulled in 1924 when Joseph Stalin came to power after which psychoanalysis was denounced on ideological grounds after helping found the American psychoanalytic Association in 1911 Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded the London psychoanalytics Society the same year in 1919 he dissolved this organization in with its core membership purged of jungian adherence founded the British psychoanalytical Society serving as its president until 1944. The Institute of psychoanalysis was established in 1924 in the London Clinic of psychoanalysis was established in 1926 both under Jones's directorship the Vienna ambulatorium was established in 1922 in the Vienna psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of Helena Deutsch farenci founded the Budapest psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 in a clinic in 1929. psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in Switzerland France Italy the Netherlands Norway and in Palestine Jerusalem 1933 by itingen who had fled Berlin after Adolf Hitler came to power the New York psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931. the 1922 Berlin Congress was the last Freud attended by this time his speech had become seriously impaired by the prosthetic device he needed as a result of a series of operations on his cancerous jaw he kept abreast of developments through regular correspondence with his principal followers and via the circular letters and meetings of the secret committee which he continued to attend the committee continued to function until 1927 by which time institutional developments within the IPA such as the establishment of the international training commission had addressed concerns about the transmission of psychoanalytic theory and practice there remained however significant differences over the issue of lay analysis I.E the acceptance of non-medically qualified candidates for psychoanalytic training Freud set out his case in favor in 1926 in his the question of lay analysis he was resolutely opposed by the American societies who expressed concerns over Professional Standards and the risk of litigation though child analysts were made exempt these concerns were also shared by some of his European colleagues eventually an agreement was reached allowing society's autonomy in setting criteria for candidature in 1930 Freud received the Gerda prize in recognition of his contributions to psychology and German literary culture patience Freud used pseudonyms in his case histories some patients known by pseudonyms were cassilliam Anna von lieben Dora Ida Bauer 1882-1945 Frau Emmy Von n Fanny Moser froyline Elizabeth von R Ilona Weiss froyline Katarina irelia cronich freylign Lucy R little Hans Herbert Graff 1903-1973 ratman Ernst lanzer 1878-1914 Enos finji Joshua Wilde 1878-1920 and Wolf Man Sergey pankajev 1887-1979 other famous patients included Prince Pedro Augusto of Brazil 1866-1934 HD 1886-1961 Emma Eckstein 1865-1924 Gustav Mahler 1860-1911 with whom Freud had only a single extended consultation princess Marie Bonaparte Edith Banfield Jackson 1895-1977 and Albert Hurst 1887-1974. cancer in February 1923 Freud detected a leukoplakia a benign growth associated with heavy smoking on his mouth he initially kept this secret but in April 1923 he informed Ernest Jones telling him that the growth had been removed Freud consulted the dermatologist Maximilian Steiner who advised him to quit smoking but lied about the growth seriousness minimizing its importance Freud later saw Felix Deutsch who saw that the growth was cancerous he identified it to Freud using the euphemism a bad leukoplakia instead of the technical diagnosis epithelioma Deutsch advised Freud to stop smoking and have the growth excise Freud was treated by Marcus Hayek a rhinologist whose competence he had previously questioned Hayek performed an unnecessary cosmetic surgery in his Clinic's outpatient Department Freud bled during and after the operation and may narrowly have escaped death Freud subsequently saw Deutsch again Deutsche saw that further surgery would be required but did not tell Freud he had cancer because he was worried that Freud might wish to commit suicide escape from Nazism in January 1933 the Nazi party took control of Germany and Freud's books were prominent among those they burned and destroyed Freud remarked to Ernest Jones what progress we are making in the Middle Ages they would have burned me now they are content with burning my books Freud continued to underestimate the growing Nazi threat and remained determined to stay in Vienna even following the anslews of the 13th of March 1938 in which Nazi Germany annexed Austria and the outbreaks of violent anti-Semitism that ensued Jones the then president of the International psychoanalytical Association IPA flew into Vienna from London via Prague on the 15th of March determined to get Freud to change his mind and seek Exile in Britain this Prospect and the shock of the arrest and interrogation of Anna Freud by the Gestapo finally convinced Freud it was time to leave Austria Jones left for London the following week with a list provided by Freud of the party of emigres for whom immigration permits would be required back in London Jones used his personal acquaintance with the Home Secretary Sir Samuel hore to expedite the granting of permits there were 17 in all in work permits were provided where relevant Jones also used his influence in scientific circles persuading the president of the Royal Society Sir William Bragg to write to the foreign secretary Lord Halifax requesting to good effect that diplomatic pressure be applied in Berlin and Vienna on Freud's behalf Freud also had support from American diplomats notably his ex-patient and American ambassador to France William bullet bullet alerted U.S president Roosevelt to the increased dangers facing the freuds resulting in the American Consul General in Vienna John Cooper Wiley arranging regular monitoring of Burgess 19. he also intervened by phone call during the Gestapo interrogation of Anna Freud the departure from Vienna began in stages throughout April and May 1938. Freud's grandson Ernst halberstadt and Freud's son Martin's wife and children left for Paris in April Freud's sister-in-law Mina Bernays left for London on the 5th of May Martin Freud the following week and Freud's daughter Matilda and her husband Robert hollicher on the 24th of May by the end of the month arrangements for Freud's own departure for London had become stalled mired in a legally tortuous and financially extortionate process of negotiation with the Nazi authorities under regulations imposed on its Jewish population by the new Nazi regime a commissar was appointed to manage Freud's assets and those of the IPA whose headquarters were near Freud's home Freud was allocated to Dr Anton sauerwald who had studied chemistry at Vienna University under Professor Joseph Herzig an old friend of Freud's sauerwald read Freud's books to further learn about him and became sympathetic towards his situation though required to disclose details of all Freud's bank accounts to his superiors and to arrange the destruction of the historic library of books housed in the offices of the IPA sauerwald did neither instead he removed evidence of Freud's foreign bank accounts to his own safekeeping and arranged the storage of the IPA library in the Austrian national library where it remained until the end of the war though sauerwald's intervention lessened the financial burden of the flight tax on Freud's declared assets other substantial charges were levied concerning the debts of the IPA and the valuable collection of Antiquities Freud possessed unable to access his own accounts Freud turned to princess Marie Bonaparte the most eminent and Wealthy of his French followers who had traveled to Vienna to offer her support and it was she who made the necessary funds available this allowed sourwald to sign the necessary exit visas for Freud his wife Martha and daughter Anna they left Vienna on the Orient Express on the 4th of June accompanied by their housekeeper and a doctor arriving in Paris the following day where they stayed as guests of Marie Bonaparte before traveling overnight to London arriving at London Victoria Station on the 6th of June among those soon to call on Freud to pay their respects were Salvador Dali Stefan's feig Leonard Wolff Virginia Woolf and H.G Wells representatives of the Royal Society called with the society's Charter for Freud who had been elected a foreign member in 1936 to sign himself into membership Marie Bonaparte arrived near the end of June to discuss the fate of Freud's four elderly sisters left behind in Vienna her subsequent attempts to get them exit visas failed and they would all die in Nazi concentration camps in early 1939 sauerwald arrived in London in mysterious circumstances where he met Freud's brother Alexander he was tried and imprisoned in 1945 by an Austrian Court for his activities as a Nazi Party official responding to a plea from his wife Anna Freud wrote to confirm that sauerwald used his office as our appointed commissar in such a manner as to protect my father her intervention helped secure his release from jail in 1947. In the Freud's new home 20 maresfield Gardens Hampstead North London Freud's Vienna Consulting room was recreated in faithful detail he continued to see patients there until the terminal stages of his illness he also worked on his last books Moses and monotheism published in German in 1938 and in English the following year in the uncompleted an outline of psychoanalysis which was published posthumously death by mid-september 1939 Freud's cancer of the jaw was causing him increasingly severe pain and had been declared inoperable the last book he read Balzac's lapo de Chagrin prompted Reflections on his own increasing Frailty and a few days later he turned to his doctor friend and fellow Refugee Max sure reminding him that they had previously discussed the terminal stages of his illness sure you remember our contract not to leave me in the Lurch when the time had come now it is nothing but torture and makes no sense when sure replied that he had not forgotten Freud said I thank you and then talk it over with Anna and if she thinks it's right then make an end of it Anna Freud wanted to postpone her father's death but sure convinced her it was pointless to keep him alive on 21 in the 22nd of September he administered doses of morphine that resulted in Freud's death at around 3am on the 23rd of September 1939. however discrepancies in the various accounts sure gave of his role in Freud's Final hours which have in turn led to inconsistencies between Freud's main biographers has led to further research in a revised account this proposes that sure was absent from Freud's deathbed when a third and final dose of morphine was administered by Dr Josephine Strauss a colleague of Anna Freud leading to Freud's death at around midnight on the 23rd of September 1939. three days after his death Freud's body was cremated at the golders green crematorium in North London with herods acting as Funeral Directors on the instructions of his son Ernst funeral orations were given by Ernest Jones and the Austrian author Stefan's feig Freud's ashes were later placed in the crematorium's Ernest George columbarium C Freud corner they rest on a plinth designed by his son Ernst in a sealed ancient Greek Bell crater painted with dionysian scenes that Freud had received as a gift from Marie Bonaparte and which he had kept in his study in Vienna for many years after his wife Martha died in 1951 her ashes were also placed in the urn ideas early work Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873. he took almost nine years to complete his studies due to his interest in neurophysiological research specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system and because of his interest in studying philosophy with Franz brentano he entered Private Practice in neurology for financial reasons receiving his MD degree in 1881 at the age of 25. amongst his principal concerns in the 1880s was the anatomy of the brain specifically the medulla oblongata he intervened in the important debates about Aphasia with his monograph of 1891 zaraofasung durafasian in which he coined the term agnosia and counseled against a two-locationist view of the explanation of neurological deficits like his contemporary Eugene bluler he emphasized brain function rather than brain structure Freud was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy which was then known as cerebral paralysis he published several medical papers on the topic and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it he also suggested that William John little the man who first identified cerebral palsy was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause instead he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique the goal of Freudian therapy or psychoanalysis was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into Consciousness to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions classically the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to Consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk about dreams and engage in free association in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so another important element of psychoanalysis is transference the process by which patients displace onto their analyst feelings and ideas which derive from previous figures in their lives transference was first seen as a regrettable phenomenon that interfered with the recovery of repressed memories and Disturbed patients objectivity but by 1912 Freud had come to see it as an essential part of the therapeutic process the origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Joseph Brewer Freud credited Brewer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of anno in November 1880. Brewer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21 year old woman Bertha papenheim for a persistent cough that he diagnosed as hysterical he found that while nursing her dying father she had developed some transitory symptoms including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of Limbs which he also diagnosed as hysterical Brewer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent and observed that she entered states of absence he found that when with his encouragement she told fantasy stories in her evening states of absence her condition improved and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again Brewer recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom in the Years immediately following Brewer's treatment annao spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis hysteria with somatic symptoms and some authors have challenged Brewer's published account of a cure Richard skews rejects this interpretation which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism revisionism that regards both Brewer's Narrative of the case is unreliable in his treatment of Anna O is a failure psychologist Frank sulloway contends that Freud's case histories are rampant with censorship distortions highly dubious reconstructions and exaggerated claims dot seduction theory in the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Brewer had described to him Modified by what he called his pressure technique and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction according to Freud's later accounts of this period as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported Early Childhood sexual abuse he believed these accounts which he used as the basis for his seduction Theory but then he came to believe that they were fantasies he explained these at first as having the function of fending off memories of infantil masturbation but in later years he wrote that they represented edible fantasies stemming from innate drives that are sexual and destructive in nature another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psycho neuroses in letters to fleece in October 1895. before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients in the first half of 1896 Freud published three papers which led to his seduction Theory stating that he had uncovered in all of his current patients deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood in these papers Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories and must therefore be present as unconscious memories if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis the patients were subjected to considerable pressure to reproduce infantile sexual abuse scenes that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse he reported that even after a supposed reproduction of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief as well as his pressure technique Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference in the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantil sexual abuse his claim of 100 confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques Freud subsequently showed inconsistency as to whether his seduction theory was still compatible with his later findings in an addendum to the etiology of Hysteria he stated all this is true the sexual abuse of children but it must be remembered that at the time I wrote it I had not yet freed myself from my overvaluation of reality and my low valuation of fantasy some years later Freud explicitly rejected the claim of his colleague ferency that his patients reports of sexual molestation were actual memories instead of fantasies and he tried to dissuade fairancy from making his views public Karen Abel rap concludes in her study I no longer believe did Freud abandon the seduction Theory Freud marked out and started down a trail of Investigation into the nature of the experience of infantil incest and its impact on the human psyche and then abandoned this direction for the most part dot cocaine as a medical researcher Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic he believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems and in his 1884 paper on Coca he extolled its virtues between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications including its use as an antidepressant he narrowly missed out on obtaining scientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing Carl caller a colleague of Freud's in Vienna received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction he had introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst Von fleischel marxa who had become addicted to Morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired after injuring himself while performing an autopsy his claim that fleischal marxa was cured of his addiction was premature though he never acknowledged that he had been at fault fleischel marxa developed an acute case of cocaine psychosis and soon returned to using morphine dying a few years later still suffering from intolerable pain the application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world Freud's medical reputation became somewhat tarnished after the cocaine episode Freud ceased to publicly recommend the use of the drug but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s before discontinuing its use in 1896 the unconscious the concept of the unconscious was Central to Freud's account of the Mind Freud believed that while poets and thinkers had long known of the existence of the unconscious he had ensured that it received scientific recognition in the field of psychology Freud States explicitly that his concept of the unconscious as he first formulated it was based on the theory of repression he postulated a cycle in which ideas are repressed but remain in the mind removed from Consciousness yet operative then reappear in Consciousness under certain circumstances the postulate was based upon the investigation of cases of Hysteria which revealed instances of behavior in patients that could not be explained without reference to ideas or thoughts of which they had no awareness in which analysis revealed were linked to the real or imagined repressed sexual scenarios of childhood in his later reformulations of the concept of repression in his 1915 paper repression standard edition 14. Freud introduced the distinction in the unconscious between primary repression linked to the universal taboo on incest innately present originally and repression after expulsion that was a product of an individual's life history acquired in the course of the ego's development in which something that was at one point conscious is rejected or eliminated from consciousness in his account of the development and modification of his theory of unconscious mental processes he sets out in his 1915 paper the unconscious standard edition 14. Freud identifies the three perspectives he employs the dynamic the economic and the topographical the dynamic perspective concerns firstly the constitution of the unconscious by repression and secondly the process of censorship which maintains unwanted anxiety-inducing thoughts as such here Freud is drawing on observations from his earliest clinical work in the treatment of Hysteria in the economic perspective the focus is upon the trajectories of the repressed contents the vicissitudes of sexual impulses as they undergo complex transformations in the process of both symptom formation and normal unconscious thoughts such as dreams and slips of the tongue these were topics Freud explored in detail in the interpretation of dreams and the Psychopathology of everyday life whereas both these former perspectives focus on the unconscious as it is about to enter Consciousness the topographical perspective represents a shift in which the systemic properties of the unconscious its characteristic processes and modes of operations such as condensation and displacement are placed in the foreground dot in his later work notably in the ego and the ID a second Topography is introduced comprising id ego and superego which is superimposed on the first without replacing it in this later formulation of the concept of the unconscious the ID comprises a reservoir of instincts or drives a portion of them being hereditary or innate a portion repressed or acquired as such from the economic perspective the it is the prime source of psychical energy and from the dynamic perspective it conflicts with the ego in the superego which Genetically speaking are diversifications of the ID dreams Freud believed the function of Dreams is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awaken the dreamer in Freud's theory dreams are instigated by the daily occurrences and thoughts of everyday life in what Freud called that DreamWork these secondary process thoughts word presentations governed by the rules of language and the reality principle becomes subject to the primary process of unconscious thought thing presentations governed by the Pleasure Principle wish gratification in the repressed sexual scenarios of childhood because of the disturbing nature of the latter and other repressed thoughts and desires which may have become linked to them the DreamWork operates a censorship function disguising by Distortion displacement and condensation the repressed thoughts to preserve sleep in the clinical setting Freud encouraged free association to the dream's Manifest content as recounted in the dream narrative to facilitate interpretive work on its latent content the repressed thoughts and Fantasies and also on the underlying mechanisms and structures operative in the DreamWork as Freud developed his theoretical work on dreams he went beyond his theory of dreams as wish fulfillments to arrive at an emphasis on dreams as nothing other than a particular form of thinking dot it is the dream work that creates that form and it alone is the essence of dreaming psychosexual development Freud's theory of psychosexual development proposes that following on from the initial polymorphous perversity of infantile sexuality the sexual drives pass through the distinct developmental phases of the oral the anal and the phallic though these phases then give way to a latency stage of reduced sexual interest and activity from the age of five to puberty approximately they leave to a greater or lesser extent a perverse and bisexual residue which persists during the formation of adult genital sexuality Freud argued that neurosis and perversion could be explained in terms of fixation or regression to these phases whereas adult character and cultural creativity could achieve a sublimation of their perverse residue after Freud's later development of the theory of the Oedipus complex this normative developmental trajectory becomes formulated in terms of the child's renunciation of incestuous desires under the fantasized threat of a fantasized fact of in the case of the girl castration the dissolution of the Oedipus complex is then achieved when the child's rivorous identification with the parental figure is transformed into the pacifying identifications of the ego ideal which assume both similarity and difference and acknowledge the separateness and autonomy of the other Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material arguing that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal edible conflict id ego and superego Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts id ego and superego Freud discussed this model in the 1920 essay beyond the Pleasure Principle and fully elaborated upon it in the ego in the ID in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema I.E conscious unconscious and pre-conscious the it is the completely unconscious impulsive childlike portion of the psyche that operates on the Pleasure Principle and is the source of basic impulses and drives it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification Freud acknowledged that his use of the term ID dos s the it derives from the writings of gay or groddick the superego is the moral component of the psyche the rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the Impractical Hedonism of the ID and the equally impractical moralism of the superego it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions when overburdened or threatened by its tasks it may employ defense mechanisms including denial repression undoing rationalization and displacement this concept is usually represented by the iceberg model this model represents the roles the id ego and superego play in relation to conscious and unconscious thought Freud compared the relationship between the ego and the ID to that between a charioteer and his horses the horses provide the energy and drive while the charioteer provides Direction life and death drives Freud believed that the human psyche is subject to two conflicting drives the life drive or libido in the Death Drive the life Drive was also termed Eros and the Death Drive Thanatos although Freud did not use the latter term Thanatos was introduced in this context by Paul federn Freud hypothesized that libido is a form of mental energy with which processes structures and object representations are invested in beyond the Pleasure Principle Freud inferred the existence of a death Drive its premise was a regulatory principle that has been described as the principle of psychic inertia the Nirvana principle and the conservatism of instinct its background was Freud's earlier project for a scientific psychology where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition since it proved adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning and replaced the idea that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension Freud in effect re-adopted the original definition in beyond the Pleasure Principle this time applying it to a different principle he asserted that on certain occasions the Mind acts as though it could eliminate tension or in effect to reduce itself to a state of Extinction his key evidence for this was the existence of the compulsion to repeat examples of such repetition included the dream life of traumatic neurotics and children's play in the phenomenon of repetition Freud saw a psychic Trend to work over earlier Impressions to master them and derive pleasure from them a trend that was before the Pleasure Principle but not opposed it in addition to that Trend there was also a principle at work that was opposed to and thus beyond the Pleasure Principle if repetition is a necessary element in The Binding of energy or adaptation when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions by combining this idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge Freud concluded that the compulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of energy death such an explanation has been defined by some Scholars as metaphysical biology Melancholia in his 1917 essay mourning in Melancholia Freud distinguished mourning painful but an inevitable part of life and Melancholia his term for pathological refusal of a mourner to decath from The Lost One Freud claimed that in normal morning the ego was responsible for narcissistically detaching the libido from the lost one as a means of self-preservation but that in Melancholia prior ambivalence towards the lost one prevents this from occurring suicide Freud hypothesized could result in extreme cases when unconscious feelings of conflict became directed against the mourner's own ego femininity and female sexuality initiating what became the first debate within psychoanalysis on femininity Karen Horney of the Berlin Institute set out to challenge Freud's account of the development of feminine sexuality rejecting Freud's theories of the feminine castration complex and penis envy horny argued for a primary femininity and penis envy as a defensive formation rather than arising from the fact or injury of biological asymmetry as Freud held horny had the influential support of Melanie Klein and Ernest Jones who coined the term fallow centrism in his critique of Freud's position in defending Freud against this critique feminist scholar Jacqueline Rose has argued that it presupposes a more normative account of female sexual development than that given by Freud she notes that Freud moved from a description of the little girl stuck with her inferiority or injury in the face of the anatomy of the little boy to an account in his later work which explicitly describes the process of becoming feminine as an injury or catastrophe for the complexity of her earlier psychic and sexual life According to Freud elimination of clitoral sexuality is a necessary precondition for the development of femininity since it is immature and masculine in its nature Freud postulated the concept of vaginal orgasm as separate from clitoral orgasm achieved by external stimulation of the clitoris in 1905 he stated that clitoral orgasms are purely an adolescent phenomenon and that upon reaching puberty the proper response of mature women is a change over to vaginal orgasms meaning orgasms without any clitoral stimulation this theory has been criticized on the grounds that Freud provided no evidence for this basic assumption and because it made many women feel inadequate when they could not achieve orgasm via vaginal intercourse alone religion Freud regarded the monotheistic God as an illusion based upon the infantile emotional need for a powerful Supernatural Peter familias he maintained that religion once necessary to restrain man's violent nature in the early stages of civilization in modern times can be set aside in favor of reason and science obsessive actions and religious practices notes the likeness between Faith religious belief and neurotic obsession totem and taboo proposes that society and religion begin with the patricide and eating of the powerful paternal figure who then becomes a revered Collective memory these arguments were further developed in the future of an illusion in which Freud argued that religious belief serves the function of psychological consolation Freud argues the belief of a supernatural protector serves as a buffer from man's fear of nature just as the belief in an afterlife serves as a buffer from man's fear of death the core idea of the work is that all of religious belief can be explained through its function to society not for its relation to the truth this is why according to Freud religious beliefs or illusions in Civilization and its discontents he quotes his friend Roman Rolland who described religion as an oceanic sensation but says he never experienced this feeling Moses and monotheism proposes that Moses was the tribal Peter familias killed by the Jews who psychologically coped with the patricide with a reaction formation conducive to their establishing monotheistic Judaism analogously he described the Roman Catholic right of Holy Communion as cultural evidence of the killing and devouring of the Sacred father moreover he perceived religion with its suppression of violence as mediator of the societal and personal the public and the private conflicts between Eros and Thanatos the forces of life and death later works indicate Freud's pessimism about the future of civilization which he noted in the 1931 edition of civilization in its discontents in a footnote of his 1909 work analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy Freud theorized that the universal fear of castration was provoked in the uncircumcised when they perceived circumcision and that this was the deepest unconscious root of anti-semitism Legacy Freud's Legacy though a highly contested area of controversy was described by Stephen frosh as one of the strongest influences on 20th century thought its impact comparable only to that of Darwinism and Marxism Henri Ellenberger stated that its range of influence permeated all the fields of culture so far as to change our way of life and concept of man dot Psychotherapy though not the first methodology in the practice of individual verbal Psychotherapy Freud's psychoanalytics system came to dominate the field from early in the 20th century forming the basis for many later variants while these systems have adopted different theories and techniques all have followed Freud by attempting to achieve psychic and behavioral change through having patients talk about their difficulties psychoanalysis is not as influential as it once was in Europe in the United States though in some parts of the world notably Latin America its influence in the later 20th century expanded substantially psychoanalysis also remains influential within many contemporary schools of psychotherapy and has led to Innovative therapeutic work in schools and with families and groups there is a substantial body of research which demonstrates the efficacy of the clinical methods of psychoanalysis and of related psychodynamic Therapies in treating a wide range of psychological disorders the neo-frudians a group including Alfred Adler Auto rank Karen horny Harry stack Sullivan and Eric from rejected Freud's theory of instinctual Drive emphasized interpersonal relations and self-assertiveness and made modifications to therapeutic practice that reflected these theoretical shifts Adler originated the approach although his influence was indirect due to his inability to systematically formulate his ideas the Neo Freudian analysis places more emphasis on the patient's relationship with the analyst and less on the exploration of the unconscious Carl Jung believed that the collective unconscious which reflects the cosmic order and the history of the human species is the most important part of the Mind it contains archetypes which are manifested in symbols that appear in dreams Disturbed states of mind and various products of culture jungians are less interested in infantil development and psychological conflict between wishes and the forces that frustrate them than an integration between different parts of the person the object of jungian therapy was to mend such splits Jung focused in particular on problems of middle and later life his objective was to allow people to experience the split-off aspects of themselves such as the anima a man-suppressed female self the Animus a woman's suppressed male self or the shadow an inferior self-image and thereby attain wisdom Jacques lakhan approached psychoanalysis through Linguistics and literature lacken believed Freud's essential work had been done before 1905 and concerned the interpretation of Dreams neurotic symptoms and slips which had been based on a revolutionary way of understanding language and its relation to experience and subjectivity and that ego psychology and object relations Theory were based upon misreadings of Freud's work for Lakin the determinative dimension of Human Experience is neither the self as in ego psychology nor relations with others as an object relations Theory but language lacken saw desire is more important than need and considered it necessarily ungratifiable Wilhelm Wright developed ideas that Freud had developed at the beginning of his psychoanalytic investigation but then superseded but never finally discarded these were the concept of the actual neurosis and the theory of anxiety based upon the idea of damned up libido in Freud's original view what really happened to a person the actual determined the resulting neurotic disposition Freud applied that idea both to infants and to adults in the former case seductions were sought as the causes of later neuroses and in the latter incomplete sexual release unlike Freud Reich retained the idea that actual experience especially sexual experience was of key significance by the 1920s Reich had taken Freud's original ideas about sexual release to the point of specifying the orgasm as the criteria of healthy function Reich was also developing his ideas about character into a form that would later take shape first as muscular armor and eventually as a transducer of universal biological energy the orgone Fritz pearls who helped to develop Gestalt therapy was influenced by Reich Jung and Freud the key idea of Gestalt therapy is that Freud overlooked the structure of awareness an active process that moves toward the construction of organized meaningful holes between an organism and its environment these holes called gestalts are patterns involving all the layers of organismic function thought feeling and activity Neurosis is seen as splitting in the formation of gestalts and anxiety is the organism's sensing the struggle towards its creative unification Gestalt therapy attempts to cure patients by placing them in contact with immediate organismic needs pearls rejected the verbal approach of classical psychoanalysis talking in Gestalt therapy serves the purpose of self-expression rather than gaining self-knowledge Gestalt therapy usually takes place in groups and in concentrated workshops rather than being spread out over a long period of time it has been extended into new forms of communal living Arthur yanev's Primal therapy which has been influential post Freudian Psychotherapy resembles psychoanalytic therapy in its emphasis on Early Childhood experience but has also differences with it while yanev's theory is akin to Freud's early idea of actual Neurosis he does not have a dynamic psychology but a nature psychology like that of Reich or pearls in which need is primary while wish is derivative and dispensable when need is met despite its surface similarity to Freud's ideas yanev's Theory lacks a strictly psychological account of the unconscious and belief in infantil sexuality while for Freud there was a hierarchy of dangerous situations for Yan of the key event in the child's life is an awareness that the parents do not love it Yaniv writes in the Primal scream that Primal therapy has in some ways returned to Freud's early ideas and techniques Ellen bass and Laura Davis co-authors of the courage to heal are described as champions of survivorship by Frederick Cruz who considers Freud the key influence upon them although in his view they are indebted not to Classic psychoanalysis but to the pre-psychoanalytic Freud who supposedly took pity on his hysterical patients found that they were all harboring memories of early abuse and cured them by unknotting their repression Crews seized Freud as having anticipated the recovered memory Movement by emphasizing mechanical cause and effect relations between symptomatology and the premature stimulation of one body zone or another and with pioneering its technique of thematically matching a patient's symptom with a sexually symmetrical memory Cruz believes that Freud's confidence and accurate recall of early Memories anticipates the theories of recovered memory therapists such as Lenore tur which in his view have led to people being wrongfully imprisoned or involved in litigation science research projects designed to test Freud's theories empirically have led to a vast literature on the topic American psychologists began to attempt to study repression in the experimental laboratory around 1930. in 1934 when the psychologist saw rosensweig sent Freud reprints of his attempts to study repression Freud responded with a dismissive letter stating that the wealth of reliable observations on which psychoanalytic assertions were based made them independent of experimental verification Seymour Fisher and Roger P Greenberg concluded in 1977 that some of Freud's Concepts were supported by empirical evidence their analysis of research literature supported Freud's concepts of oral and anal personality constellations his account of the role of edible factors in certain aspects of male personality functioning his formulations about the relatively greater concern about the loss of love in women's as compared to men's personality economy and his views about the instigating effects of homosexual anxieties on the formation of paranoid delusions they also found limited and equivocal support for Freud's theories about the development of homosexuality they found that several of Freud's other theories including his portrayal of dreams as primarily containers of secret unconscious wishes as well as some of his views about the psychodynamics of women were either not supported or contradicted by research reviewing the issues again in 1996 they concluded that much experimental data relevant to Freud's work exists and supports some of his major ideas and theories other viewpoints include those of Hans isank who writes in Decline and fall of the Freudian Empire that Freud set back the study of psychology and Psychiatry by something like 50 years or more and Malcolm McMillan who concludes and Freud evaluated that Freud's method is not capable of yielding objective data about mental processes Morris Eagle states that it has been demonstrated quite conclusively that because of the epistemologically contaminated status of clinical data derived from the clinical situation such data have questionable probative value in the testing of psychoanalytic hypotheses Richard Webster in why Freud was wrong described psychoanalysis as perhaps the most complex and successful pseudoscience in history Cruz believes that psychoanalysis has no scientific or therapeutic Merit IB Cohen regards Freud's interpretation of dreams as a revolutionary work of science the last such work to be published in book form in contrast Alan Hobson believes that Freud by rhetorically discrediting 19th century investigators of Dreams such as Alfred Mori and the Marquis De herveda Saint Denis at a time when study of the physiology of the brain was only beginning interrupted the development of scientific dream theory for half a century the dream researcher G William domhoff has disputed claims of Freudian dream theory being validated the philosopher Carl popper who argued that all proper scientific theories must be potentially falsifiable claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in unfalsifiable form meaning that no experiment could ever disprove them the philosopher Adolf grundbaum argues in the foundations of psychoanalysis that popper was mistaken and that many of Freud's theories are empirically testable a position with which others such as isank agree the philosopher Roger scrutin writing in sexual desire also rejected Popper's arguments pointing to the theory of repression as an example of a Freudian theory that does have testable consequences scrutin nevertheless concluded that psychoanalysis is not genuinely scientific because it involves an unacceptable dependence on metaphor the philosopher Donald Levy agrees with grunbaum that Freud's theories are falsifiable but disputes grunbaum's contention that therapeutic success is only the empirical basis on which they stand or fall arguing that a much wider range of empirical evidence can be a deuce if clinical case material is taken into consideration in a study of psychoanalysis in the United States Nathan Hale reported on the decline of psychoanalysis in Psychiatry during the years 1965-1985. the continuation of this trend was noted by Alan Stone as academic psychology becomes more scientific and Psychiatry more biological psychoanalysis is being brushed aside Paul stapanski while noting that psychoanalysis remains influential in the humanities records that vanishingly small number of psychiatric residents who choose to pursue psychoanalytic training and that non-analytic backgrounds of psychiatric chairpersons at major universities among the evidence he cites for his conclusion that such historical Trends attest to the marginalization of psychoanalysis within American Psychiatry nonetheless Freud was ranked as the third most cited psychologist of the 20th century according to a review of General psychology survey of American psychologists and psychology texts published in 2002. it is also claimed that in moving beyond the Orthodoxy of the not so distant past new ideas and new research has led to an intense Reawakening of interest in psychoanalysis from neighboring disciplines ranging from the humanities to neuroscience and including the non-analytic Therapies research in the emerging field of neuropsychoanalysis founded by neuroscientists and psychoanalyst Mark solms has proved controversial with some psychoanalyst criticizing the very concept itself Psalms and his colleagues have argued for neuroscientific findings being broadly consistent with Freudian theories pointing out brain structures relating to Freudian Concepts such as libido drives the unconscious and repression neuroscientists who have endorsed Freud's work include David Eagleman who believes that Freud transformed Psychiatry by providing the first exploration of the way in which hidden states of the brain participate in driving thought and behavior and Nobel Laureate Eric candle who argues that psychoanalysis still represents the most coherent and intellectually satisfying view of the Mind dot philosophy psychoanalysis has been interpreted as both radical and conservative by the 1940s it had come to be seen as conservative by the European and American intellectual community critics outside the psychoanalytic movement whether on the political left or right saw Freud as a conservative Fromm had argued that several aspects of psychoanalytic theories served the interests of political reaction in his the fear of Freedom an assessment confirmed by sympathetic writers on the right in Freud the mind of the moralist Philip Reef portrayed Freud as a man who urged men to make the best of an inevitably unhappy fate and admirable for that reason in the 1950s Herbert Marcus challenged the then prevailing interpretation of Freud as a conservative in Eros and civilization as did Lionel trilling in Freud in the crisis of our culture in Norman o'brown in life against death Eros and civilization helped make the idea that Freud and Karl Marx were addressing similar questions from different perspectives credible to the left Mark Hughes criticized Neo Freudian revisionism for discarding seemingly pessimistic theories such as the death Instinct arguing that they could be turned in a utopian Direction Freud's theories also influenced the Frankfurt School in critical theory as a whole Freud has been compared to Marx by Reich who saw Freud's importance for Psychiatry as parallel to that of marks for economics and by Paul Robinson who sees Freud as a revolutionary whose contributions to 20th century thought are comparable in importance to Marx's contributions to the 19th century thought from calls Freud Marx and Einstein The Architects of the Modern Age but rejects the idea that Marx and Freud were equally significant arguing that Marx was both far more historically important and a finer thinker from nevertheless credits Freud with permanently changing the way human nature is understood Giles de Luz and Felix gwatari write an anti-edipus that psychoanalysis resembles the Russian Revolution in that it became corrupted almost from the beginning they believe this began with Freud's development of the theory of the Oedipus complex which they see as idealist Jean-Paul Sartre critiques Freud's theory of the unconscious in being and nothingness claiming that Consciousness is essentially self-conscious sartra also attempts to adapt some of Freud's ideas to his own account of human life and thereby develop an existential psychoanalysis in which causal categories are replaced by teleological categories Maurice Merlot Ponte considers Freud to be one of the anticipators of phenomenology while theater W adorno considers Edmund husrell the founder of phenomenology to be Freud's philosophical opposite writing that hussarel's polemic against psychologism could have been directed against psychoanalysis Paul recurr sees Freud as one of the three masters of Suspicion alongside Marx and Nietzsche for their unmasking the lies and illusions of consciousness have helped create a hermeneutic version of Freud one which claimed him as the most significant progenitor of a shift from an objectifying empiricist understanding of the human realm to one stressing subjectivity and interpretation Lewis alt Husser Drew on Freud's concept of overdetermination for his reinterpretation of Marx's capital jean-francois leotard developed a theory of the unconscious that reverses Freud's account of the DreamWork for leotard the unconscious is a force whose intensity is Manifest via disfiguration rather than condensation Jacques Derrida finds Freud to be both a late figure in the history of Western metaphysics in with Nietzsche and Heidegger a precursor of his own brand of radicalism several Scholars see Freud as parallel to Plato writing that they hold nearly the same theory of dreams and have similar theories of the tripartite structure of the human soul or personality even if the hierarchy between the parts of the soul is almost reversed Ernest Gellner argues that Freud's theories are an inversion of Plato's whereas Plato saw a hierarchy inherent in the nature of reality and relied upon it to validate Norms Freud was a naturalist who could not follow such an approach both men's theories drew a parallel between the structure of the human mind and that of society but while Plato wanted to strengthen the superego which corresponded to the aristocracy Freud wanted to strengthen the ego which corresponded to the middle class Paul Vitz Compares Freudian psychoanalysis to tomism noting Saint Thomas's belief in the existence of an unconscious Consciousness and his frequent use of the word and concept libido sometimes in a more specific sense than Freud but always in a manner in agreement with the Freudian use Vitz suggests that Freud may have been unaware his theory of the unconscious was reminiscent of Aquinas literature and literary criticism the poem in memory of Sigmund Freud was published by British poet w h Auden in his 1940 collection another time Odin describes Freud as having created a whole climate of opinion under whom we conduct our different lives literary critic Harold Bloom has been influenced by Freud Camille Paglia has also been influenced by Freud whom she calls Nietzsche's Heir and one of the greatest sexual psychologists in literature but has rejected the scientific status of his work in her sexual personae writing Freud has no Rivals among his successors because they think he wrote science when in fact he wrote Art dot feminism the decline in Freud's reputation has been attributed partly to the Revival of feminism Simone de Beauvoir criticizes psychoanalysis from an existentialist standpoint in The Second Sex arguing that Freud saw an original superiority in the mail that is in reality socially induced Betty frieden criticizes Freud in what she considered his Victorian view of women in the Feminine Mystique Freud's concept of penis envy was attacked by Kate Millett who in sexual politics accused him of confusion and oversights in 1968 the U.S American feminist Anne coat wrote in her essay the myth of the vaginal orgasm it was Freud's feelings about women's secondary and inferior relationship to men that formed the basis for his theories on female sexuality once having laid down the law about the nature of our sexuality Freud not so strangely discovered a tremendous problem of frigidity in women his recommended cure for a frigid woman was psychiatric care she was suffering from failure to mentally adjust to her natural role as a woman Naomi weisting writes that Freud and his followers erroneously thought his years of intensive clinical experience added up to Scientific rigor Freud is also criticized by shulameth Firestone and Eva figures in the dialectic of sex Firestone argues that Freud was a poet who produced metaphors rather than literal truths in her view Freud like feminists recognized that sexuality was The crucial problem of modern life but ignored the social context and failed to question Society itself Firestone interprets Freud's metaphors in terms of The Facts of power within the family figures tries in patriarchal attitudes to place Freud within a history of ideas Juliet Mitchell defends Freud against his feminist critics in psychoanalysis and feminism accusing them of misreading him and misunderstanding the implications of psychoanalytic theory for feminism Mitchell helped introduce English-speaking feminists to lacken Mitchell is criticized by Jane Gallup in the daughter's seduction Gallup compliments Mitchell for her criticism of feminist discussions of Freud but finds her treatment of lacanian theory lacking some French feminists among them Julia Christopher and luciragare have been influenced by Freud as interpreted by lakhan irigarh has produced a theoretical challenge to Freud and Lakin using their theories against them to put forward psychoanalytic explanation for theoretical bias irigare who claims that the cultural unconscious only recognizes the male sex describes how this affects accounts of the psychology of women psychologist Carol Gilligan writes that the penchant of Developmental theorists to project a masculine image and one that appears frightening to women goes back at least to Freud she sees Freud's criticism of women's sense of justice reappearing in the work of Jean Piaget and Lawrence kohlberg Gilligan notes that Nancy chotoro in contrast to Freud attributes sexual difference not to Anatomy but to the fact that male and female children have different early social environments chotoro writing against the masculine bias of psychoanalysis replaces Freud's negative and derivative description of female psychology with a positive and direct account of her own has developed a feminist perspective on psychoanalysis proposing that it is a discourse that attempts to understand the psychic consequences of three Universal traumas the fact that there are others the fact of sexual difference and the fact of death she replaces Freud's term of castration with Stanley cavell's concept of victimization which is a more Universal term that applies equally to both sexes Moi regards this concept of human finitude is a suitable replacement for both castration and sexual difference as the traumatic discovery of our separate sext mortal existence and how both men and women come to terms with it in popular culture Sigmund Freud is the subject of three major films or TV series the first of which was 1962's Freud the secret passion starring Montgomery Clift as Freud directed by John Houston from a revision of a script by an uncredited Jean-Paul Sartre the film is focused on Freud's early life from 1885 to 1890 and combines multiple case studies of Freud into single ones and multiple friends of his into single characters in 1984 the BBC produced the six-episode mini-series Freud the life of a dream starring David suchet in the lead role the stage play the talking cure and subsequent film A Dangerous Method focus on the conflict between Freud and Carl Jung both are written by Christopher Hampton and are partly based on the non-fiction book a Most Dangerous Method by John Kerr Viggo Mortensen plays Freud and Michael Fassbender plays Jung the play is a reworking of an earlier unfilmed screenplay more fanciful Employments of Freud in fiction are the seven percent Solution by Nicholas Meyer which centers on an encounter between Freud and the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes with a main part of the plot seeing Freud helping Holmes overcome his cocaine addiction similarly the 2020 Austrian German series Freud involves a young Freud solving murder mysteries the series has been criticized for having Freud be helped by a medium with Real Paranormal Powers when in reality Freud was quite skeptical of the Paranormal Mark Street germain's 2009 play Freud's last session imagines a meeting between C.S Lewis aged 40 and Freud aged 83 at Freud's house in Hampstead London in 1939 as the second world war is about to break out the play is focused on the two men discussing religion and whether it should be seen as a sign of neurosis the play is inspired by the 2003 non-fiction book the question of God C.S Lewis and Sigmund Freud debate God love sex and the meaning of Life by Armand Nikolai which also inspired a four-part non-fiction PBS series although no such meeting took place June fluitt Who as a teenager stayed with C.S Lewis and his brother during the wartime London Air Raids later married Freud's grandson Clement Freud Freud is employed to more comic effect in the 1983 film lovesick in which Alec Guinness plays Freud's ghost who gives love advice to a modern psychiatrist played by Dudley Moore Freud is also presented in a comedic light in the 1989 film Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure portrayed by Rod Loomis Freud is one of several historical figures recruited by the film's time traveling lead characters to assist them in passing their High School history class presentation Canadian author Kim morrissey's stage play about the Dora case Dora a case of Hysteria attempts to thoroughly debunk Freud's approach to the case French playwright Elin sisu's 1976 portrait of Dora is also critical of Freud's approach though less acerbakley the narrator of Bob Dylan's Darkly humorous 2020 song my own version of you calls Mr Freud with his dreams one of the best known enemies of mankind and refers to him as burning in hell in the online superhero themed animated series super science friends Freud appears as a main character alongside other famous historical science figures this audio uses material from the Wikipedia article Sigmund freudn.wikipedia.org Wiki Sigmund underscore Freud which is released under the license Creative Commons attribution share alike 3.0 unported CC by sa 3.0 creativecommons.org licenses slash by sa 3.0