Transcript for:
Comprehensive AP Psychology Review Notes

Welcome to my AP Psychology mega review video. This video will review the entire AP psychology course in about 4 hours. It contains everything you need to know from all five units of the course. Occasionally throughout the video, I'll refer to the study guide worksheets that you can grab via the link in the description. They're designed for you to fill out while watching this video so you can thoroughly review the whole course as fast as possible. Okay, let's dive in. Unit one covers the biological basis of behavior in six sections. Let's dive right into the first section which is titled interaction of heredity and environment. This section explores what is colloquially known as the nature versus nurture debate where heredity is nature and environment is nurture. Heredity or nature refers to genetic or predisposed characteristics that influence physical, behavioral, and mental traits and processes. These are the characteristics that we are born with. They're part of our biology. On the other hand, environmental factors or nurture refers to the external factors that influence us such as family interactions or education. Historically, there was a big debate between the two sides of this issue. Some people believed heredity or nature was the predominant influence on individuals. Other people believe the environment or nurture was what influenced our behaviors and characteristics. However, remember that there's a middle way, the interactionist perspective, which merges the nature versus nurture debate. It argues that genetics and environment do not work in isolation, but both have their own influence to help shape human behavior, personality, and development. Another thing you need to know for unit 1.1 is the evolutionary perspective. This perspective explores how natural selection affects human behaviors and mental processes. The traits that ensure survival and reproductive success become dominant traits in humans, while traits that are less useful for survival and reproduction become less pronounced. While this theory is evidently true, some people have historically used this theory to justify discrimination against others in a debunked theory called eugenics. Eugenics is the idea that people can improve the human race by encouraging those with desirable traits to have children and preventing those with undesirable traits from reproducing. It misuses evolutionary psychologyy's concept of natural selection by attempting to play God. Today, scientists reject eugenics because it denies the dignity and rights of all humans. And from a scientific perspective, it ignores the complexity of how traits develop in the real world. The final thing we need to know for unit 1.1 is the research on nature versus nurture. Scientists have studied the effects of heredity and environment using twin, family, and adoption studies. Twin studies compare identical twins, who share almost 100% of their genes, and fraternal twins, who on average share about 50% of their genes, to see how much traits are influenced by genetics. If identical twins are more alike in a trait than fraternal twins, it suggests that genes play a bigger role. By studying twins raised in different environments, scientists can also see how much the environment affects traits like intelligence and personality. Family studies look at how traits run in families by comparing parents, siblings, and extended relatives. If a trait appears more often in closely related family members, it suggests genetics play a role. However, since families also share environments, it can be hard to tell whether genes or surroundings have a bigger influence. Adoption studies compare adopted children to both their biological and adoptive families to see whether genes or environment have a stronger effect. If a child is more similar to their biological parents, it suggests genetics play a bigger role. While similarities to adoptive parents point to environmental influences, these studies help scientists understand traits like intelligence, personality, and even the risk of certain diseases. These three types of studies have shown that both nature and nurture play important roles in shaping who we become, reinforcing the interactionist perspective on psychological development. Okay, that brings us to the end of unit 1.1. If you're following along using the study guide, you should have filled out all of the questions for the first page. Now, you can check your answers using the answer key worksheet I've provided. If you're a premium member, you can also pause here and go into our study coach portal where you'll find additional study quizzes and video walkthroughs for this section where I discuss how to answer typical exam questions. Now, let's move on to unit 1.2 titled overview of the nervous system. This section focuses on the different subsystems of the nervous system and how they function. The nervous system is the body's communication network responsible for transmitting signals and coordinating actions. It is divided into two main parts. The central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain acts as the command center controlling thoughts, emotions, movement, and vital functions like breathing and heart rate. The spinal cord serves as a highway relaying messages between the brain and the rest of the body. It also plays a key role in reflexes which are automatic responses to stimuli. For example, when you touch something hot, your hand pulls away before your brain even fully processes the pain. This happens because the spinal cord can trigger reflexive actions without needing input from the brain. The peripheral nervous system extends beyond the brain and spinal cord carrying messages between the central nervous system and the rest of the body. It is further divided into the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary bodily functions, meaning processes that happen automatically without conscious effort. It consists of two branches that work together to regulate the body's internal state. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for action in stressful situations by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and releasing adrenaline. This response, commonly known as the fightor-flight response, helps the body react quickly to danger. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system has the opposite effect, calming the body after stress has passed. It slows the heart rate, promotes digestion, and conserves energy, which is why it is often referred to as the rest and digest system. While the autonomic nervous system regulates automatic functions, the sematic nervous system controls voluntary movements. This part of the nervous system allows us to consciously move our muscles, enabling actions like walking, writing, or raising a hand in class. When you decide to move, the brain sends signals through the sematic nervous system to the appropriate muscles, making the movement happen. This system is what allows us to interact with the world in an intentional way. Okay, that was a lot. So, let's summarize it all before moving on. If you're following along using the study guide, fill in the diagram on page two as we summarize. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord and is responsible for processing information and coordinating all bodily functions. The peripheral nervous system connects the central nervous system to the rest of the body and is divided into two main parts. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary functions with the sympathetic nervous system triggering the fight orflight response and the parasympathetic nervous system restoring balance after stress. The somatic nervous system on the other hand governs voluntary movements allowing us to perform intentional actions. Now let's move on to unit 1.3 titled the neuron and neural firing. This section focuses on how cells in the central nervous system influence behavior and mental processes. To begin, let's explore the nervous system. There are two main types of neural cells that support the nervous system. Neurons and gal cells. Neurons are responsible for carrying electrical and chemical signals while gile cells provide support by maintaining structure, insulating neurons, facilitating communication, and removing waste. Both types of cells work together to ensure the nervous system functions properly. Let's zoom in on neurons. As unit 1.3 asks us to demonstrate how three types of neurons work together in a process called a reflex arc. Reflex arcs are rapid automatic responses to stimuli that do not require input from the brain. The spinal cord contains three types of neurons that work together to form the reflex arc. Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and inner neurons. Sensory neurons detect stimuli and send signals to the spinal cord. Inner neurons process this information and relay it to motor neurons which then send signals to muscles to produce a response. For example, if you touch something hot, sensory neurons in your skin send a message to the spinal cord, where inner neurons quickly process the information and activate motor neurons, causing you to pull your hand away before you consciously register the pain. This quick reaction helps protect the body from harm. Next, we need to know about a process called neural transmission. This process is essential for all thoughts, emotions, and movements and follows a specific sequence. At rest, a neuron maintains a resting potential, meaning it has a stable charge. When stimulated, the neuron reaches its threshold, triggering depolarization, which causes an electrical signal to travel down the neuron. This signal follows the all or nothing principle, meaning the neuron either fires completely or not at all. After firing, the neuron enters a refractory period, a brief moment when it cannot fire again. Once the signal reaches the end of the neuron, chemicals called neurotransmitters are released into the sinapse, the tiny gap between neurons. These neurotransmitters are then either reabsorbed in a process called re-uptake or broken down. This entire process allows signals to travel rapidly through the nervous system, enabling thought, movement, and perception. Disruptions to neural transmission can have significant effects on behavior and mental processes. If neurons do not function properly, communication within the nervous system is impaired. For example, multiple sclerosis is a disorder where the protective covering of neurons is damaged, slowing or blocking signals between the brain and body. This can lead to symptoms such as muscle weakness and coordination problems. Another disorder mythenia gravis occurs when communication between neurons and muscles is disrupted causing muscle weakness and fatigue. These conditions highlight how essential proper neural function is for everyday activities. Now that you know the neurotransmission process, we can talk about the different types of neurotransmitters and their functions. Some neurotransmitters are excedatory, meaning they make a neuron more likely to fire, while others are inhibitory, meaning they make a neuron less likely to fire. The neurotransmitters you may be assessed on in AP psychology are dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, endorphins, substance P, and acetylcholine. Dopamine is associated with movement, motivation, and the brain's reward system. Serotonin influences mood, appetite, and sleep. Norepinephrine plays a role in alertness and the body's response to stress. Glutamate is the brain's main excitatory neurotransmitter essential for learning and memory. While gamma aminoic acid or GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter, helping to regulate neural activity and prevent overstimulation. Endorphins act as natural painkillers, reducing discomfort and promoting pleasure. Substance P helps transmit pain signals and acetylcholine is involved in muscle movement, attention, and memory. The balance of these neurotransmitters is critical for normal cognitive and emotional functioning, and imbalances can contribute to mental health conditions such as depression or anxiety. In addition to neurotransmitters, hormones also influence behavior and mental processes, though they function differently. While neurotransmitters travel quickly across synapses, hormones are released into the bloodstream, producing effects that are slower but longerlasting. Some key hormones include adrenaline, which prepares the body for action by increasing heart rate and energy levels in response to stress. Leptin and ghrein regulate hunger with leptin signaling fullness and ghrein increasing appetite. Melatonin helps regulate sleep cycles, while oxytocin plays a role in social bonding, trust, and emotional connection. Although hormones and neurotransmitters operate through different systems, they often work together to regulate emotions, behavior, and bodily responses. We're almost done with unit 1.3, but we still have one more thing to cover. The effects of psychoactive drugs on behaviors, and mental processes. Psychoactive drugs can alter neural activity by interfering with neurotransmitter function. Some drugs act as agonists which mimic neurotransmitters and enhance neural firing. Others function as antagonists which block neurotransmitters and reduce neural activity. Some drugs interfere with re-uptake, preventing neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed and prolonging their effects. These alterations can significantly impact behavior, mood, and cognition. Different types of psychoactive drugs affect the nervous system in specific ways. Stimulants such as caffeine and cocaine increase neural activity leading to heightened alertness and energy. Depressants such as sedatives slow down neural activity producing relaxation and drowsiness. Hallucinogens such as marijuana distort perception and cognition, altering sensory experiences. Opioids such as heroin act as powerful pain relievers by mimicking the effects of endorphins. Long-term use of psychoactive drugs can lead to tolerance, meaning the body requires larger doses to achieve the same effect. Continued use can also result in addiction where the brain becomes dependent on the drug. If drug use is suddenly stopped, withdrawal symptoms can occur which may cause physical and psychological distress. Okay, so that's unit 1.3. It's a big section, so let's break down what you need to know in a checklist. First, you need to know that neurons and gile cells form the foundation of the nervous system with neurons transmitting signals and gly cells providing essential support. Second, you need to know that reflex arcs demonstrate how different neurons work together in the spinal cord to produce automatic responses. Third, you need to know that neural transmission follows a structured process including resting potential, threshold, depolarization, the all or nothing principle, the refractory period, and re-uptake. Fourth, you need to know that neurotransmitters influence behavior and mental processes by either promoting or inhibiting neural activity with dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, glutamate, GABA, endorphins, substance P, and oetylcholine playing critical roles. Fifth, you need to know that hormones regulate functions such as stress, hunger, sleep, and social bonding. Sixth, you need to know that psychoactive drugs modify neurotransmitter function, altering mental and physical states. And seventh, you need to know that long-term drug use can lead to tolerance, addiction, and withdrawal, highlighting the complex relationship between brain chemistry, and behavior. There were a lot of terms in that section. So, in addition to completing the section study guide, I'd recommend printing out the vocabulary flashcards I provided and going through them on a regular basis to reinforce these terms and concepts. Now, let's move on to unit 1.4, which focuses on the different structures of the brain and how they contribute to behavior and mental processes. This unit requires a lot of rope memorization of the parts of the brain. So, let's go through the parts of the brain starting with the brain stem. The brain stem is the oldest and most primitive part of the brain responsible for basic life sustaining functions. It includes the medulla which regulates essential processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. Damage to the medulla can be fatal as it controls functions necessary for survival. Above the brain stem, the reticular activating system helps regulate alertness and attention. It plays a role in voluntary movement, eye movement, and some types of learning, cognition, and emotion. This system is also involved in the sleepwake cycle, influencing levels of consciousness, and focus. Another key structure involved in motivation and learning is the brain's reward center, which reinforces behaviors that promote survival by releasing pleasurable chemicals when we engage in activities such as eating or socializing. The cerebellum located at the back of the brain is responsible for coordinating movement, maintaining balance, and supporting procedural learning. This part of the brain allows for smooth, precise movements, and is crucial for activities such as walking, writing, or playing an instrument. Although it is not involved in conscious thought, the cerebellum is essential for developing motor skills and muscle memory. The cerebral cortex is the largest and most complex part of the brain. It is divided into two hemispheres and contains specialized regions responsible for perception, thought, language, and decision-m. Within the cerebral cortex, the lyic system includes the phalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, and amydala. All of which are involved in regulating emotions, memory, and motivation. The phalamus acts as a relay center directing sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain. The hypothalamus helps regulate homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, and body temperature. The pituitary gland controls hormone release, influencing growth and metabolism. The hippocampus is essential for forming and retrieving memories, while the amydala plays a key role in processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression. The cerebral cortex is further divided into four loes, each responsible for different functions. The occipital loes located at the back of the brain process visual information. The temporal loes located on the sides of the brain are involved in auditory processing and language comprehension. The parietal loes located near the back crown of the head contain association areas that organize and interpret sensory information. Within the parietal loes, the semataensory cortex processes touch, temperature, and pain sensations. The frontal loes located just behind the forehead are responsible for higher order thinking, decision-m and executive functioning. The preffrontal cortex within the frontal loes plays a role in reasoning, impulse control, and personality. At the rear of the frontal loes, the motor cortex directs voluntary movement by sending signals to the muscles. Okay, so those are the key parts of the brain you need to know about for unit 1.4. Clearly, we just covered a lot of terms and it's going to take time to memorize them. The flash card set I provided in the link in the description contains all those terms. So, make sure you print those flash cards and revisit them regularly. Next up, we have to cover some basic knowledge about split brain research. This is research involving patients whose corpus colosum, the connection between the brain's two hemispheres is severed. These unique patients give us insight into how the two hemispheres of the brain function. For example, in cases of severe epilepsy, the corpus colosum is sometimes severed to prevent seizures from spreading. This procedure has revealed that the right and left hemispheres specialize in different functions. The left hemisphere typically processes language. It contains Broca's area which is responsible for speech production and Woricki's area which is responsible for speech comprehension. Damage to these areas can result in aphasia, a condition that affects language ability. Let's look at a hypothetical split brain research study to better understand what these types of studies reveal about our brains two hemispheres. Imagine we have a patient whose corpus colosum has been split so their brain hemispheres cannot communicate with one another. The experimenttor places a spoon in the patients left hand without letting them see it. Touch from the left hand is processed exclusively by the right hemisphere. So the patients right hemisphere knows what they are holding. However, the right hemisphere cannot send this information to the left hemisphere where language is processed due to the severed corpus colosum. Without this connection, the patients speech center remains unaware of what the right hemisphere knows and therefore the patient cannot tell the researcher what they're holding. The left hemisphere remains oblivious. Interestingly, the left hand could still point to a picture of a spoon, demonstrating that the patient knows what they're holding, but just cannot verbalize it due to the split brain phenomenon. Despite the brain specialized areas, it has the ability to adapt and reorganize itself, a property known as brain plasticity. This ability allows the brain to form new connections and compensate for damage. If one part of the brain is injured, another part may take over its function, especially during early development. Brain plasticity also plays a role in learning and memory as new experiences strengthen or modify neural pathways. To study the brain, researchers use a variety of techniques including brain scans, case studies, and surgical procedures. Electroinsphilograms or EEGs measure electrical activity in the brain and are often used to study sleep and neural activity. Functional magnetic resonance imaging tracks blood flow to different brain regions, showing which areas are active during certain tasks. Case studies of individuals with brain injuries have provided insight into the functions of different brain structures. In some cases, surgical procedures such as lesioning involve intentionally damaging a part of the brain to study its effects, helping researchers understand how specific brain regions contribute to behavior and cognition. Okay, that brings us to the end of unit 1.4. Let's break down what you need to know in a checklist before we move on. First, you need to know about the brain stem and medulla, which regulates essential processes such as breathing, heart rate, and digestion. Second, you need to know the different regions of the brain that are responsible for various functions including movement, balance, sensory processing, memory, emotions, and higher order thinking. Third, you need to know that the brain is divided into two hemispheres which communicate through the corpus colossum and that split brain research has shown how each hemisphere specializes in certain tasks particularly in language processing. Fourth, you need to know that brain plasticity allows the brain to reorganize and form new connections which helps with learning and recovery from injury. And fifth, you need to know how researchers study the brain using scans, case studies, and surgical procedures to understand how different brain structures influence behavior and mental processes. That's it for unit 1.4. It's time to move on to unit 1.5, which is all about sleep. For unit 1.5, we first need to be able to explain the sleep wake cycle and how it affects behavior and mental processes. Sleep is one of two primary states of consciousness, the other being wakefulness. Humans go through a daily sleepwake cycle which is regulated by a biological process known as the circadian rhythm. This rhythm is controlled by environmental cues like light and temperature, helping the body maintain a regular pattern of sleep and wakefulness. Sometimes the circadian rhythm is disrupted and this can negatively impact cognitive and physical functioning. For example, jet lag occurs when a person travels across multiple time zones, causing their internal clock to be misaligned with the local time. Similarly, shift work, which requires people to be awake at night and sleep during the day, can interfere with natural sleep patterns leading to fatigue, mood disturbances, and decreased alertness. Sleep itself is divided into distinct stages. Non-rapid eye movement sleep or enrem sleep consists of three stages that become progressively deeper. Stage one is the lightest stage of sleep often accompanied by brief sensory experiences known as hypnogogic sensations such as the feeling of falling. Stage two is a transitional stage where the body prepares for deep sleep. Stage three is the deepest stage of sleep playing a crucial role in physical restoration and immune system function. As the night progresses, the duration of NREM sleep decreases while rapid eye movement sleep or REM sleep becomes more frequent. REM sleep is often called paradoxical sleep because brain activity during this stage closely resembles wakefulness. Yet, the body remains at its most relaxed state due to temporary muscle paralysis. This is the stage where most dreaming occurs. When people are deprived of REM sleep, they may experience REM rebound, meaning they enter REM sleep more quickly and spend more time in this stage when they next sleep. Unit 1.5 also asks us to explore psychological theories about why dreams occur. One theory is called the activation synthesis theory, which suggests that dreams result from random neural activity in the brain stem that the brain then interprets as meaningful experiences. Another is the consolidation theory which proposes that dreams help process and store memories strengthening learning and problem solving skills. Although there are multiple perspectives on the function of dreams they remain an area of ongoing research. But why do we sleep? Well, sleep itself is believed to serve important functions beyond dreaming. One major theory suggests that sleep plays a role in memory consolidation by organizing and strengthening newly acquired information. Another theory argues that sleep restores energy and replenishes biochemical resources used throughout the day, contributing to overall cognitive and physical well-being. In unit 1.5, we also need to explore several sleep disorders. The ones you need to know about for AP psychology are shown on the screen. Now, insomnia is characterized by difficulty falling or staying asleep. Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder that causes sudden and uncontrollable sleep episodes during the day. REM sleep behavior disorder occurs when the body does not experience normal REM sleep paralysis, allowing individuals to physically act out their dreams. Sleep apneoa involves repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep, often leading to poor sleep quality and daytime fatigue. Somnambulism or sleepwalking occurs when individuals engage in complex behaviors while still asleep, typically during deep enm sleep. Managing sleep disorders through lifestyle adjustments, medical treatments, and maintaining a regular sleep schedule can improve overall health and cognitive performance. Okay, so that's unit 1.5. Let's break down what you need to know in a checklist before we move on. First, you need to know that sleep is one of two primary states of consciousness, the other being wakefulness, and that both are regulated by the circadian rhythm, a biological process that follows a roughly 24-hour cycle. Second, you need to know that disruptions to the circadian rhythm, such as jet lag and shift work, can negatively affect cognitive and physical functioning. Third, you need to know that sleep occurs in distinct stages. Non-rapid eye movement sleep consists of three progressively deeper stages while rapid eye movement sleep is the stage where most dreaming occurs. Fourth, you need to know that REM sleep is called paradoxical sleep because brain activity resembles wakefulness while the body remains in a deeply relaxed state. Fifth, you need to know that theories about dreams include the activation synthesis theory, which suggests that dreams result from random neural activity and the consolidation theory, which proposes that dreams help process and store memories. Sixth, you need to know that sleep serves functions beyond dreaming, including memory consolidation and physical restoration. And seventh, you need to know that sleep disorders such as insomnia, narcolepsy, REM sleep behavior disorder, sleep apnea, and somnambulism can interfere with normal sleep and impact health. But treatment strategies can help improve sleep quality and cognitive functioning. Now, let's move on to unit 1.6 titled sensation. Sensation is the process of detecting information from the environment and converting it into neural signals for processing in the brain. There are a few key terms you need to know for this section. So, let's go through them in order. First, you need to know what the absolute threshold is. This refers to the minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be detected at least half the time. Another key term is the just noticeable difference. This refers to the smallest detectable change in stimulus intensity. Note that just noticeable difference refers to detecting change while absolute threshold refers to detecting anything at all. The next key term is Weber's law. This law states that the ability to detect differences depends on the proportion of change rather than a fixed amount. As the intensity of a stimulus increases, a larger change is needed for a person to perceive a difference. This is confusing, so we're definitely going to need an example here. In general, if you are holding a light object, a small weight change is noticeable. But if you are holding a heavy object, a much larger weight change is needed to detect a difference. This is the essence of Weber's law. Our next term is sensory adaptation. This occurs when the body becomes less sensitive to unchanging stimuli over time. For example, we become accustomed to stimuli such as strong smells and loud background noises. As we become accustomed to them, we tend to notice them less. Okay. The next term is sensory interaction. It refers to the way different senses work together to enhance perception and understanding of the environment. For example, taste is strongly influenced by smell, which is why food seems bland when you have a cold. This interplay between senses helps improve accuracy and perception. However, it can also have funny effects. In rare cases, people experience senesthesia, a condition in which stimulation of one sense leads to experiences in another. For example, a friend of mine sees green when he hears the word Tuesday. Now, we're going to dive into our various sensory systems. AP psychology requires you to be able to explain the structures and functions of the visual, auditory, chemical, touch, and pain systems. Let's start with the visual sensory system. The visual system relies on physical structures in the eye to capture and process light as shown in this diagram. The retina located at the back of the eye contains specialized cells that detect light and convert it into neural signals. The lens toward the front of the eye helps us achieve focus through a process called accommodation, which adjusts focus for near or far objects. When accommodation is impaired, conditions like nearsightedness or far-sightedness can occur. Two types of photo receptor cells process visual information. Rods located in the periphery of the retina detect shapes and movement. They contain a pigment called rodopsin which is extremely sensitive to dim light. This allows them to function effectively in low light conditions. However, rods do not detect color which is why night vision is mostly in shades of gray. Cones concentrated in the phobia process color and fine detail. Interestingly, we have a blind spot in our vision, right where the optic nerve exits the eye. You would think that we would therefore have a black circle in our vision at all times. But the brain is clever enough to fill in the missing details to create a complete image. The other thing we need to cover when talking about the visual sensory system is color vision. There are two major theories that explain how we can see color. The tri chromatic theory explains how colors are detected in the retina. It states that three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue wavelengths combined to produce the perception of color. The opponent process theory explains how colors are processed after they leave the retina. It states that pairs of opposing colors, red, green, blue, yellow, and black, white, are processed together in the visual system. Damage to the cones or the opponent processing system can lead to color vision deficiencies such as red, green or blue yellow color blindness. Similarly, damage to the brain's visual processing centers particularly in the occipital loes can result in disorders such as proopagnosia which affects facial recognition and blind sight in which individuals with visual damage can respond to visual stimuli without consciously seeing them. Okay, we're done with our discussion of the visual processing system. Let's move on to the auditory system which is all about how we can hear. Sound occurs through the movement of air molecules at different wavelengths called pitch and amplitudes called loudness. Our ears help us to interpret wavelengths as sounds in a process called pitch perception. Several theories explain pitch perception. Place theory suggests that different frequencies activate different locations along the caucia which is an organ in the ear that enables hearing. Frequency theory proposes that pitch perception is based on how frequently neurons fire in response to sound waves. Voli theory suggests that groups of neurons fire in alternating sequences to encode higher frequency sounds. The ability to determine where a sound is coming from, known as sound localization, relies on detecting differences in how sounds reach each ear. We also need to have an understanding of how hearing difficulties occur. They generally result from aging or damage to the auditory structures. Two types of deafness are explicitly mentioned in the AP psychology curriculum. The first is conduction deafness which occurs when sound waves cannot reach the coccia due to problems in the outer or middle ear. The second is sensor and neural deafness which results from damage to the cacia's hair cells or damage to the auditory nerve often leading to permanent hearing loss. Next up, we have the chemical sensory systems which detect smell and taste. The sense of smell or olfaction is unique among the senses because it is processed primarily in the brain's olfactory regions rather than the phalamus. Alactory receptors detect airborne molecules which are then interpreted as sense. A unique set of chemical signals that we interpret through olfaction known as pherommones have a strong influence on social and biological behavior. For example, humans release pherommones to attract a mate. Females release pherommones to signal fertility. Mothers can detect the pherommones of their own offspring to ensure proper care and bonding. And ants lay pheromone trails to guide others to food. The sense of taste or gustation is also considered a chemical sensory system. This system detects different flavors including sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, which is savory, and oologus, which is fatty. Taste receptors on the tongue vary in sensitivity from person to person. So, we can classify people as super tasters, medium tasters, or non-tasters. Interestingly, the chemical senses of taste and smell work together to create the full experience of flavor, which is why food tastes different when a person has a blocked nose. Now, we'll move on to the sense of touch. Touch is processed by specialized receptors in the skin that detect pressure, temperature, and pain. The sensation of hot occurs when both warm and cold receptors are activated simultaneously. There are two important concepts you need to remember about the sense of touch. First is the gate control theory which suggests that the spinal cord regulates the transmission of pain signals. This theory demonstrates that pain is processed both in the body and the brain. The other important concept is phantom limb sensation. This occurs when individuals experience pain or other sensations in a limb that has been amputated, indicating that pain is influenced by neural processing beyond physical stimuli. The last thing we need to cover for unit 1.6 is how our bodies maintain balance and coordinate movement. There are two systems that work together for this. The vestibular system and the kinesthetic system. Let's start with the vestibular system. This system is located in the inner ear. It senses movement by detecting changes in head position and sending signals to the brain. This helps with posture, coordination, and spatial awareness. When this system is disrupted, it can cause dizziness, trouble with balance, or motion sickness. The other system that regulates body movement is the kinesthetic system. This system helps the body sense its position and movement via receptors in muscles, joints, and tendons. It allows us to move smoothly, coordinate our actions, and control our strength without needing to look at our body. This system is essential for activities like walking, picking up objects, and maintaining posture. That brings us to the end of unit 1.6. Let's quickly review. First, you need to know that sensation is the process of detecting stimuli from the environment and converting them into neural signals for the brain to process. Second, you need to know our key concepts about sensation. These include absolute threshold, the just noticeable difference, Weber's law, and sensory adaptation. Third, you need to know that different senses can work together to enhance perception in a process called sensory interaction. In rare cases, one sense can trigger another in a process called synthesia. Fourth, you need to know that vision is explained by the tri chromatic and opponent process theories. Fifth, you need to know that hearing is explained by place theory, frequency theory, and volley theory. Sixth, you need to know that taste and smell are chemical senses that work together to create the full experience of flavor. Seventh, you need to know that the gate control theory explains how pain is processed in the body and brain, while phantom limb sensations show how pain can be experienced even without a physical stimulus. And eighth, you need to know about the two systems that allow for balance and coordinated body movement, the vestibular system and the kinesthetic system. So, you've got all the key information for unit one, but you'll need to have the ability to apply it in the exam. So, here's what you need to do next. Grab the study guide in the link in the description to reinforce your knowledge of this information. Become a premium member to get in-depth tutorials and video walkthroughs of common unit 1 questions you could face in the AP exam. And once you feel confident about unit one, we'll move on to unit 2. Unit 2 covers cognition in eight sections. Let's dive right into the first section which is titled perception. Perception is the way we understand and interpret the world around us. It can be influenced by two different processes. Bottomup processing and top down processing. Bottomup processing happens when we rely mostly on sensory information. What we see, hear, touch, taste, or smell without using past experiences. For example, if you see a new type of fruit for the first time, you analyze its color, shape, and texture to figure out what it might be like. On the other hand, top- down processing happens when we use what we already know. Our expectations and experiences to interpret what we sense. If you see a blurry word on a sign, you might still be able to read it because your brain fills in the gaps based on what you expect it to say. Both types of processing help us make sense of the world, but they can also lead to different interpretations of the same situation. The next concepts you need to understand for unit 2.1 are schemas and perceptual sets. A schema is a mental framework that helps us organize and understand information. For example, if you have a schema for classroom, you expect to see desks, a teacher, and students. A perceptual set is a readiness to perceive something in a certain way based on expectations. If someone tells you that a drink tastes terrible before you try it, you might expect it to taste bad and dislike it, even if it's not that bad. Both schemas and perceptual sets influence how we interpret what we experience. Sometimes helping us understand things more quickly, but sometimes leading to mistakes or biases. Right now, you might be wondering how on earth you'll remember all these terms. To help, you might want to grab the flash cards for this unit that I've linked in the description. Look over them daily to help commit the terms from unit 2 into your memory. Now that you understand internal influences on perception, let's look at how external factors also play a role. External factors include the context of a situation, personal experiences, and cultural background. Contexts affect how people see the world by providing the background for their experiences. For example, someone from a noisy city might ignore sirens, while someone from a quiet town might find them alarming. Experiences shape how people understand things based on what they have been through. For example, someone who has had a bad experience with dogs as a child might assume all dogs are dangerous, even if most are friendly. Cultural experiences and expectations influence how people interpret behaviors and events based on their traditions and beliefs. Certain hand gestures can have vastly different meanings depending on the country. For instance, the thumbs up gesture is a sign of approval in the United States, but in some parts of the Middle East and South Asia, it can be considered offensive. These external factors shape how we see and respond to the world, showing that perception is not just about what enters our senses, but also about how we interpret that information. The next concept in unit 2.1 is Gustalt psychology. According to Gestalt psychology, there are several principles governing how we tend to make sense of visual information. AP psychology requires that you know the following Gestalt principles: closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity. The principle of closure states that we complete incomplete images in our minds, such as recognizing a broken circle as a full shape. Figure ground perception helps us distinguish objects from their backgrounds. This is why we can focus on a single person in a crowded room. The principle of proximity shows that we tend to see objects that are close together as a group. The principle of similarity states that people tend to perceive objects that share similar characteristics such as color, shape, or size as being related. For example, in a design where circles and squares are arranged in a grid, people will naturally group the circles together and the squares together rather than seeing them as a random assortment. These principles help explain why we perceive order in the world even when what we see is incomplete or complex. Now that you understand how we organize perception, it's time to pivot to the concept of attention. Attention is the mental process that allows us to focus on certain information while filtering out everything else. It acts as a bridge between sensation, what our senses detect, and perception, how our brain interprets that information. However, attention is limited, meaning we cannot process everything in our environment at once. Instead, our brain prioritizes certain details while ignoring others. Internal and external factors influence what we pay attention to at any given moment. Internal factors include things like our interests, emotions, and level of alertness. If you are excited about a topic in class, you are more likely to stay focused on the teacher's lecture. On the other hand, if you are tired or bored, your attention may wander. External factors include sudden changes in the environment, such as a loud noise, a flashing light, or someone calling your name. These unexpected stimuli can grab our attention even when we were focused on something else. Attention helps us concentrate on what matters to us. However, because attention is selective, it also means that we miss many things happening around us. To understand the pros and cons of selective attention, let's look at three effects. The cocktail party effect, inattention blindness, and change blindness. We'll start with the cocktail party effect. Imagine being in a crowded, noisy room where multiple conversations are happening at once. Even if you are not listening to every conversation, if someone says your name, your brain immediately picks it up. This proves that even when we think we are ignoring background noise, our brain is still processing some of it. Now let's move on to inattentional blindness. Inattentional blindness occurs when a person fails to notice an unexpected object in their field of vision because their attention is focused elsewhere. This happens even though the object is clearly visible. A famous example is the invisible gorilla experiment where participants were asked to count basketball passes. Because they were so focused on the basketball, they failed to see a person in a gorilla suit walking through the scene. Thirdly, we have change blindness. Change blindness happens when a person does not notice a change in a visual scene. Even when the change is large, people often fail to detect it because their brain does not automatically compare the before and after images. For example, in a movie scene, if an actor's shirt color changes between cuts, many viewers won't notice because their attention is on the overall action rather than the specific details. Now that you understand attention, we'll move on to the key information in AP psychology about visual perception or how our eyes perceive the world. AP psychology asks you to understand the difference between binocular and moninocular depth cues. Binocular depth cues are visual cues that require both eyes to perceive depth and distance. AP psychology requires that you know about two binocular depth cues, retinal disparity and convergence. Retinal disparity is the slight difference in the images perceived by each eye due to their different positions, which the brain uses to determine depth. Convergence is the inward movement of the eyes when focusing on a nearby object with greater convergence indicating closer distance. Moninocular depth cues are visual cues that require only one eye to perceive depth and distance. AP psychology requires that you know about five moninocular depth cues: relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and inner position. Relative clarity is the tendency for clearer and sharper objects to appear closer, while hazy or blurred objects appear farther away. Relative size is the perception that when two objects are known to be of similar size, the smaller one appears farther away. Texture gradient is the gradual decrease in detail. And texture as an object's surface recedes into the distance, creating a sense of depth. Linear perspective is the appearance of parallel lines converging as they extend into the distance, creating the illusion of depth. Interposition is the perception that an object blocking part of another object is closer than the one it partially obscures. There are just two more things we need to cover for unit 2.1. These are visual perceptual consistency and apparent movement. Visual perceptual consistency refers to the brain's ability to perceive objects as stable and unchanging despite variations in sensory input. For example, even when lighting conditions change or an object is viewed from different angles, its color, shape, and size are perceived as constant. This ability helps us navigate the world without being confused by minor changes in appearance. Apparent movement occurs when stationary objects are perceived as moving due to visual cues such as rapid succession of images or changes in position. A good example is watching an animated movie where still images shown quickly in sequence give the illusion of movement. Another example is the fi phenomenon where blinking lights in a row appear to move even though they are not. These effects prove that perception is not always reality. Our brain sometimes fills in movement where there is none. Okay, that's the end of unit 2.1. Let's quickly review what you need to know about this unit for the AP psychology exam. First, you need to know that perception is influenced by bottom-up processing, which uses sensory input, and top- down processing, which uses prior knowledge and expectations. Second, you need to know that schemas and perceptual sets are internal mental filters that shape how we perceive things. Third, you need to know that external factors like context, culture, and past experiences also influence how we interpret what we sense. Fourth, you need to know the Gestalt principles closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity, which explain how we organize visual information. Fifth, you need to know that attention is how we focus perception, and it can be influenced by both internal goals and external stimuli. Sixth, you need to know the cocktail party effect, where you notice your name or something important to you, even in a noisy room. Seventh, you need to know about inattentional blindness where you miss something visible because your attention is focused elsewhere. Eighth, you need to know that change blindness happens when people fail to notice changes in their environment due to lack of attention. Ninth, you need to know that binocular depth cues like retinal disparity and convergence help us judge depth using both eyes. 10th, you need to know that moninocular depth cues like relative size, clarity, texture gradient, linear perspective, and inner position create the illusion of depth on flat surfaces. 11th, you need to know that perceptual constancy allows us to recognize objects as the same even when they look different from different angles or in different lighting. 12th, you need to know that we can perceive motion even when there is no actual movement, which is called apparent motion. If you're using the study guide, you should have now completed the unit 2.1 section. Open the answer key now to check your work. If you don't quite understand everything and you're a premium member, you can jump into our study coach portal where I break down this unit in more detail. In the portal, you'll also find additional video explanations for common exam questions from unit 2.1. Once you feel confident you understand everything in this section, we can move on to unit 2.2, thinking, problem solving, judgments, and decision-m. Let's dive into thinking first, which starts with the idea of concepts. Concepts are the foundation of all thinking. They are mental categories that help us group similar things together, making it easier to understand and navigate the world. For example, the concept of bird includes many different species from sparrows to eagles, even though they have differences. Within each concept, we have a prototype, which is the best or most typical example of that category. For instance, when people think of a bird, they might picture a pigeon rather than an ostrich because those birds match their prototype more closely. Prototypes help us quickly recognize and classify new information, but they can also lead to errors. If something does not fit our mental image, we can build on psychological concepts by forming schemas. A schema is a more complex mental framework that includes not just a category, but also expectations, knowledge, and associations about that category. Think of it this way. A concept is a basic category. For example, bird. A schema is a more detailed framework that tells you what you expect from that category. For example, birds have feathers, can fly, and build nests. Schemas allow us to make sense of the world by fitting new experiences into what we already know. However, schemas are not fixed. They change as we gain new information. According to Jean Pia, there are two ways schemas are modified. Assimilation and accommodation. Assimilation happens when we take in new information but do not change our existing schema. For example, if a child has only ever seen small dogs and then sees a new small dog, they simply add it to their dog schema without adjusting anything. Here, the schema didn't require changes. So, it's an example of assimilation. On the other hand, accommodation happens when new information forces a change in the schema itself. If that same child then sees a great dane, they may need to update their dog schema to include large dogs as well. Okay, so that's thinking. Now, let's look at problem solving. For problem solving, our key concepts are algorithms and heruristics. An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure that guarantees the right answer as long as it is followed correctly. Unlike relying on past experiences or quick guesses, an algorithm works by systematically testing every possible option until the correct one is found. For example, imagine you see a bird you have never encountered before. If you used an algorithmic approach to identify it, you would start by systematically testing all possible classifications. First, you would check if it fits into your existing songbird schema. If it does not, you would move to the next possible category, such as water fowl, raptor, or waiting bird, carefully comparing its traits to every known species in a bird guide until you find a match. This method guarantees an accurate identification, but it takes a long time because you have to check every possibility one by one. While algorithms are useful for accuracy, they are often too slow for quick decisions. Because of this, people frequently rely on heristics, which we'll discuss next. A heristic is a mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies problem solving by relying on experience and intuition rather than exhaustive analysis. There are two main types of heruristics. The representativeness heristic and the availability heristic. The representativeness heristic is when we judge something based on how well it matches our expectations or stereotypes. For example, if someone describes a quiet person who loves reading, you might assume they are a librarian rather than a construction worker, even if the actual probability of that is low. The availability heristic is when we make decisions based on the first or most vivid example that comes to mind. If you recently heard about a shark attack on the news, you might think shark attacks are more common than they really are simply because the memory is fresh. Huristics help us make fast decisions, but they can also lead to mistakes. For example, heruristics often cause stereotyping and cause us to rely too much on prior assumptions and biases. Okay, next up is decision-m. Decision-m can be influenced by prior experiences, known as a mental set, or the circumstances surrounding a decision. AP psychology requires that you know about two aspects of circumstances, priming and framing. Let's start with mental sets. A mental set occurs when we rely on strategies that worked in the past, even if they are not the best solution in a new situation. For example, if you always solve a puzzle using a certain technique, you might struggle to try a different method, even if it would work better. Now, let's look at those two ways of using circumstances to make a decision. Priming and framing. Priming happens when exposure to certain stimuli influences our decision-m. For example, if you hear the word bird multiple times in a conversation and then later see an ambiguous, blurry image later on, you might be more likely to identify it as a bird quickly because it's what comes to mind quickly. Your brain has been primed to make the connection because it was recently exposed to related concepts. Framing refers to how a decision is presented. People tend to make different choices based on whether something is framed as a gain or a loss. For example, people are more likely to choose a medical treatment if they are told it has a 90% survival rate rather than a 10% death rate, even though both statements mean the same thing. Next up, we need to look at things that prevent us from making good decisions. The two you need to know about for AP psychology are the gamblers fallacy and the sunk cost fallacy. The gambler's fallacy occurs when people believe that past events affect future probabilities in situations where the outcomes are actually random. For example, if someone flips a coin and gets heads five times in a row, they might believe tails is due to happen next, even though each flip is independent and still has a 50/50 chance. The sunk cost fallacy happens when people continue investing time, money, or effort into something because they have already invested so much even when it no longer makes sense. For example, someone might keep watching a boring movie just because they paid for the ticket even though they would rather leave. These errors in thinking show that logic does not always guide decision-m. So that's it for poor decision-m. But what about good decision-m? For this, we need to know about executive functions. Executive functions are the mental skills that allow people to set goals, make plans, and stay organized. These functions help individuals control their impulses, manage their emotions, and think critically before making decisions. For example, when a student plans out their homework schedule to avoid procrastination, they are using executive function skills. Someone with weak executive functions might struggle with time management, get easily distracted, or have trouble following through with long-term goals. Strong executive functioning is essential for success in school, work, and everyday life. The last thing you need to know about for unit 2.2 is creativity. AP psychology requires that you know how to define creativity by referring to divergent versus convergent thinking. It also requires that you know how functional fixedness can hinder creativity. Let's start with divergent versus convergent thinking. Divergent thinking involves exploring many unique possible solutions to a single problem, many of which might be out of the ordinary. This is at the core of creativity. In contrast, convergent thinking focuses on finding a single correct solution. Convergent thinking is useful for structured problem solving, but less effective for coming up with creative solutions. For example, a creative thinker with divergent thinking skills might find 10 different uses for a paperclip, while a convergent thinker only identifies one. Creativity can be limited by functional fixedness, which happens when people struggle to see new uses for familiar objects. For example, imagine you're in a library and in desperate need of a paper weight. You look far and wide for a specialized store-bought paper weight, failing to realize you could just use a book to hold down the paper. If you're following along with the study guide, it's time to check your work for unit 2.2 using the answer key on the screen. Now, you'll see a list of terms from the unit. You can grab the flashards for all these terms using the resources link in the description. When you're ready, we'll move on to unit 2.3 titled Introduction to Memory. Unit 2.3 explores various types of memory and memory models. Before we start this section, be warned that there are a lot of memory models here. I recommend filling out the diagrams in the study guide as we go through the slides. This will help you to consolidate this information in your mind. Now, let's dive in. To start, AP psychology requires you to know about several specific types of memory. These include explicit memory which breaks down to episodic memory and semantic memory, implicit memory which also contains procedural memory and perspective memory. Let's explore each type. Explicit memory is the type of memory we can consciously recall and explain. Episodic memory, a subtype of explicit memory, refers to personal experiences. If you remember your last birthday party or your first day of school, you're using episodic memory. These memories are tied to specific times and places. Semantic memory, the other subtype, is knowledge about facts and concepts that are not linked to personal experiences. Knowing that birds have feathers or that the capital of France is Paris, are examples of semantic memory. Unlike episodic memory, semantic memory does not require recalling when or where you learned the information. Implicit memory is the kind of memory that influences our behavior without us consciously thinking about it. Nested under implicit memory is procedural memory which stores information about how to perform tasks. For example, if you know how to ride a bike, you are using procedural memory. You do not have to think about every movement. It happens automatically. The same applies to skills like typing on a keyboard, brushing your teeth, or playing a musical instrument. Even though you know how to do these things, explaining every step in detail would be difficult because the memory is stored in a way that makes it feel automatic. Perspective memory is the ability to remember to do something later. This type of memory allows us to plan ahead and follow through with future intentions. For example, remembering to take medicine at a certain time, picking up groceries after work, or calling a friend on their birthday are all examples of perspective memory. Unlike other types of memory, perspective memory involves thinking about the future rather than recalling past experiences or facts. Now that we've covered different types of memory, we need to explore how memory is strengthened at the biological level. One important biological process involved in memory is called long-term potentiation. Long-term potentiation occurs when neurons in the brain repeatedly activate together, strengthening the connections between them. The more often a neural pathway is used, the stronger it becomes, making it easier for the brain to recall information. This is why practicing a skill like playing an instrument or studying for a test makes it easier to remember over time. The remainder of unit 2.3 explores three memory models. the working memory model, the multi-store model, and the levels of processing model. Let's start with the working memory model. Working memory is a temporary system that helps us hold and manipulate information while we use it. It is responsible for things like solving math problems in our head, following a conversation, or remembering a phone number long enough to dial it. Working memory has three main parts that work together to help us process information before it is stored in long-term memory. These are the central executive, the phonological loop, and the visual spatial sketch pad. The central executive is the system that directs attention and controls how information is processed. The phonological loop holds and repeats verbal information like remembering a grocery list or repeating a phone number. The visual spatial sketchpad processes visual and spatial information like imagining a map while giving someone directions. Now let's look at the multis storere model. This model describes how information moves through different memory systems. It identifies three main types of memory. Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Sensory memory briefly holds raw sensory information. It includes iconic memory which is visual information that lasts less than a second and echoic memory which is auditory information that lasts a few seconds. Most sensory memory fades unless we pay attention to it. Short-term memory holds a small amount of information for about 20 to 30 seconds. If we do not actively rehearse the information, it disappears. Long-term memory stores information indefinitely. This is where knowledge, experiences, and skills are kept for future use. The multi storere model also explains two ways we process information. Automatic processing and effortful processing. Automatic processing happens without effort, like remembering what you ate for breakfast. Effortful processing requires focus and practice, like memorizing vocabulary words for AP psychology. That's why I've provided flashcards that contain words from this unit. Grab them from the link in the description and start effortully processing the terms for your exam. For AP psychology, you also need to know the levels of processing model. This model suggests that the way we encode information affects how well we remember it. There are three levels of processing ranked from shallow to deep in order. They are structural processing, phmic processing and semantic processing. Structural processing is the most shallow level. It involves remembering how something looks like noticing that a word is written in capital letters. FMIC processing is a deeper level focusing on how something sounds like remembering a word because it rhymes with another word. Semantic processing is the deepest level based on meaning. If you link a new word to a personal experience or connect it to something you already know, you are using semantic processing. The deeper the level of processing, the stronger the memory will be. This is why students who focus on understanding concepts rather than just memorizing definitions tend to remember information better. This is also why I've provided you with the AP psychology study guide where you can test and demonstrate your understanding of the concepts we're discussing in this video. Grab it in the description if you haven't got it yet. Pause the screen now to check all the key terms from unit 2.3. I've also added these terms to the flash card set available in the description. If you feel confident you understand this unit, we can move on to unit 2.4 titled encoding memories. Encoding is the process of taking in information and preparing it for storage. Unit 2.4 Four is all about the methods of encoding information so it can be most efficiently stored in the mind and retrieved later on. This section is really useful for you as a student because it reveals the most effective study methods according to psychology. The encoding methods you'll need to remember and understand for this unit are pneummonic devices including the method of Loki, information grouping, including chunking, categorizing and making hierarchies, the spacing effect including masked practice and distributed practice and the serial position effect including the primacy effect and the recency effect. Each of these methods represent strategies we can use to commit information to memory. Let's start with pneummonic devices. Instead of simply trying to memorize a list of facts, pneummonic devices create mental associations that make the information easier to recall. One well-known pneummonic technique is the method of Loki. You'll need to remember this method because it's explicitly stated in the AP psychology curriculum. This strategy involves associating pieces of information with specific locations. For example, if you need to remember a grocery list, you could imagine placing each item in a different room of your house. When you mentally walk through your house, you recall each item by picturing it in its assigned location. Other pneummonic strategies include acronyms, which involve using the first letter of each word to create a new easy to remember word. For example, PEMDAS for the order of operations in math, rhymes and songs, which involve encoding information into a catchy tune or rhyme to aid recall, and imagery, which involves creating vivid mental pictures to help remember information. Next up is organizing information into meaningful groups. Three effective ways to improve encoding through organization into groups are chunking, categorization, and hierarchies. Chunking involves breaking down long pieces of information into smaller, more manageable parts. For example, instead of trying to remember a long string of numbers, it is easier to group them into chunks. Categorization involves grouping related information together. If you are memorizing a list of animals, grouping them into categories like mammals, birds, and reptiles makes recall easier. Hierarchies involve structuring information from general to specific. For example, if learning about memory, you could start with memory as a broad category and then break it down into explicit memory and implicit memory, followed by subcategories like episodic and semantic memory. Essentially, we've been using hierarchies a lot in this video to help you memorize this information. Another way to encode information in your memory is to use the spacing effect. Essentially this is about how much we space out our studying of information. To understand this we need to know about two types of practice. Mast practice and distributed practice. Mast practice involves studying everything in one long session. Colloquially we call it cramming. While this might help in the short term, the information is often forgotten quickly. Distributed practice involves studying in multiple shorter sessions over time. This leads to better long-term retention because the brain has time to consolidate the information. For example, a student who studies vocabulary words for 20 minutes every day for a week will remember them better than a student who crams for 2 hours the night before a test. The spacing effect is one of the most effective ways to improve encoding and memory retention. Next up, we need to know about the serial position effect. The serial position effect explains why we remember some parts of a list better than others. It states that items at the beginning and end of a list are easier to recall than those in the middle. There are two key effects within the serial position effect. The primacy effect and the recency effect. The primacy effect is the tendency to remember information presented at the beginning of a list better than information in the middle. This happens because the first items receive more attention in rehearsal, making them easier to transfer into long-term memory. The recency effect is the tendency to remember the last items in a list better than those in the middle. This occurs because the most recent information remains in short-term memory, making it easier to recall immediately. For example, if someone is given a long list of words and asked to recall them, they will likely remember the first few words and the last few words, but struggle with the ones in the middle. The serial position effect shows that timing matters when learning new information. If you want to improve recall, reviewing important details at both the beginning and end of a study session can help reinforce memory. So, those are the key principles of encoding. As always, check you understand the key terms and concepts from this section. They're listed on the screen now. I've added them all to the flashcard set for you as well. You should have completed the unit 2.4 section of the study guide. Now, check your answers using the answer key before proceeding. And when you're ready, we'll move on to unit 2.5, storing memories. Earlier in unit 2, we explored several categories of memory. We start unit 2.5 by returning to four key categories: sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory. For unit 2.5, we need to cover how these categories of memory differ in storage duration, capacity, and content. Sensory memory holds information from our senses for a very brief period, just a few seconds or less. It includes iconic memory, visual images that last for a fraction of a second, and echoic memory, sounds that linger for a few seconds. Most sensory memory disappears unless we pay attention to it. Short-term memory holds small amounts of information for about 20 to 30 seconds. If you don't rehearse it, the information is quickly lost. For example, when you hear a phone number and remember it just long enough to dial it, you are using short-term memory. Working memory is a more active version of short-term memory. It helps us hold and manipulate information while we are using it. For example, when solving a math problem in your head or following multi-step directions, you rely on working memory. Long-term memory is where information is stored indefinitely. Unlike short-term or working memory, long-term memory has a much larger capacity and can hold information for years or even a lifetime. We can also prolong memory storage through memory rehearsal. There are two main forms of memory rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal is simple repetition. It involves repeating information over and over to keep it in short-term memory. For example, if you keep repeating a phone number until you can write it down, you are using maintenance rehearsal. While this technique helps in the short term, it is not the most effective way to move information into long-term memory. Elaborative rehearsal is a deeper form of rehearsal that connects new information to things you already know. It involves creating meaning, which strengthens memory storage. For example, instead of just memorizing vocabulary words, you could make connections by using them in sentences, associating them with personal experiences, or linking them to images. While rehearsal strategies help improve memory, some people naturally have better memory storage than others. Let's look at an extreme example. People with highly superior autobiographical memory. People with highly superior autobiographical memory can remember almost every detail of their lives, including events from decades ago as if they happened yesterday. This ability suggests that memory storage is influenced not just by learning and rehearsal, but also by biological factors. Even for the rest of us mere mortals, autobiographical memory, which refers to memories connected to our own lives, is typically stronger than memory for random facts. This is why you are more likely to remember details about your own birthday than a historical event you read about in a textbook. Personal relevance strengthens memory storage, making experiences tied to emotions and selfidentity more memorable. While some people have exceptional memory, others experience memory impairments due to physical or developmental conditions. Memory storage can be disrupted by a range of factors and conditions. Three common conditions that affect memory are amnesia, Alzheimer's disease, and infantile amnesia. Amnesia refers to memory loss caused by injury, illness, or psychological trauma. There are two main types, retrograde and antrograde. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of past memories, often caused by brain injury or disease. A person with retrograde amnesia might forget events from their past but still be able to form new memories. Antrograde amnesia is the inability to form new long-term memories. This happens when the brain's ability to transfer information from short-term to long-term storage is damaged. A person with anti-grade amnesia may remember their past but struggle to remember what happened just minutes ago. Alzheimer's disease is a progressive brain disorder that leads to memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with thinking and reasoning. It primarily affects older adults and is linked to the deterioration of brain cells over time. Infantile amnesia refers to the common inability to remember events from early childhood. Most people cannot recall memories from before the age of three, likely because the brain structures involved in long-term memory, such as the hippocampus, are still developing during infancy. Okay, here's a summary of the key terms from unit 2.5. As usual, grab the flashcards for this section from the link in the description and check your answers to this section of the study guide using the answer key. Now that you understand how memories are stored, you are ready to move on to unit 2.6. Unit 2.6 Six explores the process of retrieving memories from memory storage. It begins with an exploration of the two main types of retrieval, recall and recognition. Next, it explores conditions where memory retrieval can be enhanced, including context dependent memory, mood congruent memory, and state dependent memory. Then it highlights two retrieval practice techniques that enhance memory retrieval, the testing effect and metacognition. Let's get started. Memory retrieval is the process of accessing information that has been stored in our brain. There are two main types of memory retrieval. Recall and recognition. Recall is when you remember information without any cues or hints. This is the hardest type of retrieval because your brain must pull the memory out on its own. For example, answering an essay question on a test requires recall because you must generate the answer from memory without multiplechoice options to help you. Recognition is when you identify something familiar from a set of choices. This type of retrieval is easier because your brain only needs to recognize the correct information rather than generate it. Multiplechoice questions on a test are an example of recognition. Seeing the right answer among the choices helps trigger your memory. Next up, we're looking at conditions that can enhance memory retrieval. There are three conditions you need to know about. Context dependent memory, mood congruent memory, and state dependent memory. Context dependent memory occurs when being in the same physical environment where a memory was first formed helps recall it more easily. For example, if you study for a test in your classroom, you might remember the material better when you take the test in the same room rather than a different study hall. Mood congruent memory means that emotions influence what we remember. When you are in a happy mood, you are more likely to recall happy memories. And when you are sad, you might find it easier to recall sad experiences. This explains why moods can reinforce themselves. When you feel down, your brain naturally pulls up memories that match that emotion. State dependent memory occurs when your physical state affects retrieval. For example, if you learn something while you are feeling energized from drinking coffee, you might recall it better when you are in the same alert state later. Another way to strengthen retrieval is through specific retrieval practice techniques, which we will discuss next. Two key techniques that enhance retrieval are the testing effect and metacognition. The testing effect refers to the idea that actively retrieving information strengthens memory more than simply reviewing it. For example, students who take practice quizzes remember information better than those who simply reread their notes. It's also why viewers of this video who fill out the study guide will remember more than viewers who just sit and watch the video. Essentially, actively engaging with information forces the brain to strengthen retrieval pathways. Metacognition is thinking about how you think. When students reflect on what they know and what they still need to review, they improve their ability to retrieve information later. For example, if you quiz yourself and realize you cannot recall a specific fact, you know to focus on that fact when you study next time. As usual, here is a list of key terms from this section which have been added to the flashcard set linked in the video description. Now that you understand how memories are retrieved, you are ready to move on to unit 2.7 titled forgetting and other memory challenges. Unit 2.7 explores four categories of memory challenges. First, it examines the forgetting curve which explains how fast we forget information. This section then explores three reasons we might fail to retrieve information from memory. Next, it explores the psychonamic concept of memory repression. And fourth, we explore three situations where our memories of events or facts might become inaccurate and unreliable. Let's look at the forgetting curve first. The forgetting curve discovered by psychologist Herman Ebbinghouse shows that memory loss happens rapidly after learning but slows down over time. Immediately after learning something new, we start forgetting it quickly unless we review or reinforce the information. However, after the initial drop, memory stabilizes, meaning the rate of forgetting slows down. This explains why studying material just once is not enough for long-term retention. Spaced repetition or reviewing information at increasing intervals helps prevent this rapid decline in memory. Okay. Next, we have retrieval failure, which refers to situations where we struggle to retrieve memories from our mind. There are three main reasons for retrieval failure. Encoding failure, interference, and inadequate retrieval. Encoding failure occurs when information never fully enters memory in the first place. If you never paid attention to a detail, like the color of a new acquaintance's shoes, you will not be able to recall it later. Interference happens when similar memories get mixed up. There are two types of interference. Proactive interference and retroactive interference. Proactive interference occurs when old information blocks new learning. For example, if you learned Spanish in high school and then start learning French, your knowledge of Spanish might interfere with your ability to remember new French vocabulary. The second is retroactive interference. This occurs when new information makes it harder to remember old information. For example, if you get a new phone number, you might have trouble recalling your old one. Inadequate retrieval refers to when you feel like you know something but cannot quite retrieve it. Colloquially, we call this the tip of the tongue phenomenon. This happens because the memory is stored but the retrieval cues are not strong enough. For example, you might recognize a celebrity's face but can't recall their name or the movie you saw them in. Now, let's look at memory repression. According to psychonamic theorists, some forgetting is a psychological defense mechanism. Theorists call this type of forgetting repression. This is the idea that people unconsciously push distressing or traumatic memories out of awareness to protect themselves from emotional pain. Sigman Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, believed that repression helps the mind cope with anxiety or negative emotions. For example, a person who experienced a traumatic childhood event may have no conscious memory of it, even though it may still influence their behavior. The next thing you need to know for unit 2.7 is that memories are not perfect recordings of the past. Instead, they can be altered, distorted, or even created due to different cognitive processes. Several factors influence the accuracy of memory, including the misinformation effect, source amnesia, and constructive memory. The misinformation effect occurs when people's memories become distorted by misleading information. For example, in a classic study by Elizabeth Loftess, participants watched a video of a car crash. When asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other, participants estimated higher speeds than when they were asked how fast the cars were going when they hit each other. The change of wording from smashed to hit within the researcher's question changed their memory of the event. This shows that the introduction information after the event can change people's memory of the event. Next is source amnesia. This occurs when people remember information but forget where it came from. For example, if you hear a fact from a friend but later think you came across it in a news article, you are experiencing source amnesia. This can lead people to misattribute memories or believe false information. Thirdly, we have constructive memory. This is the idea that memories are actively built, not just retrieved. There are two types of constructive memory. Memory consolidation and imagination inflation. During memory consolidation, details may be altered or filled in with assumptions. Imagination inflation occurs when someone repeatedly imagines an event so much that they begin to believe it actually happened. All this psychological research demonstrates that memories are not always reliable. This has major implications for eyewitness testimony, personal recollections, and even our sense of identity. Okay, here are the key terms from unit 2.7, which have been added to the flashcard set that's linked in the description. Now that you understand why memories can be lost or distorted, you are ready to move on to unit 2.8. In our final section for unit 2, we explore intelligence and achievement testing. We start by comparing theories of intelligence. Then we look at how psychologists measure intelligence and issues they face when conducting intelligence tests. Then we look at measurements of academic achievement, which differs from intelligence, and conclude with a discussion of how people's beliefs about their own intelligence affect their academic achievement. Let's get started with theories of intelligence. One of the earliest theories of intelligence was developed by Charles Spearman who proposed the idea of general intelligence often referred to as G. According to Spearman, intelligence is a broad ability that influences performance across different cognitive tasks. This means that a person who excels in one area such as mathematical reasoning is likely to perform well in other areas such as verbal skills or problem solving because intelligence is a single overarching ability. In contrast, other psychologists argue that intelligence consists of multiple intelligences that function independently. For example, Howard Gardner suggests that people can be intelligent in different ways such as through musical, linguistic, spatial or interpersonal skills. Similarly, Robert Sternberg proposed the triarchic theory of intelligence which identifies three types of intelligence. Analytical intelligence which is problem solving and logical reasoning. Creative intelligence which is innovation and originality. and practical intelligence, which is common sense and adaptability. One of the earliest approaches to intelligence testing involved calculating a person's intelligence quotient, known as IQ, by dividing their mental age by their chronological age and then multiplying the result by 100. Mental age refers to the level of cognitive ability a person demonstrates on a standardized test. Chronological age refers to their actual age. For example, if a 10-year-old child has the cognitive abilities of a 12-year-old, their IQ would be 120. Today, IQ scores are often used in education to identify students who may need additional support, such as placement in gifted programs or special education services. However, for intelligence tests to be meaningful, they must follow strict psychometric principles, which we will now explore. A meaningful intelligence test must meet three key criteria. Standardization, validity, and reliability. Standardization refers to the process of administering a test under the same conditions for all participants. This ensures that the results are not affected by differences in testing environments. For example, if one group of students takes a test in a quiet room while another group takes it in a noisy classroom, the results may not be comparable. Validity refers to whether a test measures what it is supposed to measure. There are two important types of validity. Construct validity refers to whether the test accurately measures intelligence or if it is measuring something else such as test taking skills. Predictive validity refers to whether the test can accurately predict future performance in areas such as academics or work. Reliability refers to the consistency of test results over time. There are two major types of reliability. Test retest reliability refers to whether a person's test scores remain similar when they take the same test on different occasions. Split half reliability refers to whether different sections of the same test yield similar results, ensuring that the test is internally consistent. One of the major challenges in intelligence testing is ensuring fairness across different cultural and social groups. Researchers strive to create assessments that minimize bias and do not disadvantage individuals based on their background. For this, you need to know about stereotype threat and stereotype lift. Stereotype threat occurs when people feel anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype related to their social group. This anxiety can interfere with performance leading to lower scores. For example, if female students are reminded of the stereotype that boys are better at math, they may perform worse on a math test even if they are just as capable. The opposite effect called stereotype lift occurs when people perform better because they are reminded of a positive stereotype about their group. Next up, we need to examine social issues that can arise when using intelligence tests. AP psychology requires you know about the Flynn effect, IQ variations within groups, and job discrimination. Over the past century, the Flynn effect has shown that average IQ scores have steadily increased across many countries. Researchers believe this increase is due to several societal improvements rather than genetic changes. Three societal factors that have contributed to the Flynn effect are education, healthcare, and nutrition. Education has improved with more people having access to schooling and educational resources. Health care has advanced leading to better brain development especially in early childhood and nutrition has improved which has contributed to better cognitive growth and overall brain function. These factors suggest that intelligence is shaped by the environment and can improve over time. One common misconception is that IQ differences between groups are large. But in reality, researchers have found that there is more variation within groups than between groups. In other words, individual differences in intelligence are greater than any differences between racial, ethnic, or socioeconomic groups. However, environmental factors such as poverty, discrimination, and educational inequities can negatively impact IQ scores. For example, a child who grows up in a lowincome neighborhood with fewer educational resources may not score as well on an intelligence test, not because of lower ability, but because of differences in access to learning opportunities. Furthermore, intelligence testing has sometimes been misused to restrict people's opportunities in life. Some examples include employment, education, and immigration. Employers and military organizations have used IQ scores to determine who qualifies for certain jobs or leadership positions. Schools have used intelligence tests to place students in advanced or remedial programs, sometimes reinforcing existing biases. The US once used intelligence testing as part of its immigration policies to exclude individuals from certain countries. Because of this history, intelligence testing remains controversial and researchers continue working toward fairer and more inclusive assessments. Besides intelligence tests, AP psychology requires you to know about two types of academic assessment. Achievement tests and aptitude tests. Achievement tests measure what a person has already learned. Standardized tests such as final exams and the SAT are examples of achievement tests. Aptitude tests predict how well a person might perform in the future. For example, the armed services vocational aptitude battery is used to determine suitability for various military jobs. Both types of tests play a role in education and career planning. But how people approach learning also matters, which brings us to mindsets. Psychologist Carol Dwek found that how people think about intelligence affects their success. Dwek came up with two mindsets that affect achievement. Fixed mindsets and growth mindsets. People with a fixed mindset believe intelligence is unchangeable and that effort does not make much of a difference. People with a growth mindset believe intelligence can improve with effort and learning. Students with a growth mindset tend to achieve more because they see challenges as opportunities to grow. So, you've now got all the key information you need for unit 2, but you'll need to have the ability to apply it in the exam. So, here's what you need to do next. Grab the study guide in the video description to reinforce your knowledge of the information. Become a premium member to get an edge on your studies. You'll get in-depth tutorials and video walkthroughs of common unit 2 questions you could face in the AP exam and advanced study guides to help you ace the exam. And once you feel confident about unit two, we'll move on to unit 3. Unit 3 explores developmental psychology. Let's dive right into unit 3.1, which looks at themes and methods in developmental psychology. Unit 3.1 explains that there are several major themes that shape human development. Stability versus change, nature versus nurture, and continuous versus discontinuous development. Stability versus change asks whether traits like temperament or intelligence remain consistent or shift as people age. Nature versus nurture explores how much of our development is influenced by genetics compared to environmental factors. You should already have a strong grasp of nature versus nurture because it was thoroughly discussed in unit 1.1. Continuity versus discontinuity refers to the debate about whether humans develop gradually over time or in distinct jumps through stages. Continuity implies that development is a smooth, gradual process. Discontinuity implies that human development occurs in clearly defined steps. As we go through unit 3.1, we'll look at theories that explore both perspectives. To better understand development, psychologists use research methods that allow them to observe patterns over time. Two common designs are cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. In a cross-sectional design, researchers study people of different ages at one single point in time. This helps identify age related differences quickly, but it doesn't show how individuals change over time. In contrast, a longitudinal design follows the same group of people over a long period. Tracking how their behaviors or traits change as they age. Although this method takes more time and resources, it provides stronger evidence about how individuals develop. Okay, that's it for unit 3.1. If you're using the study guide available through the link in the description, make sure you check the answer key for the unit 3.1 worksheet before moving on. I've also added all the keywords for this unit to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. And when you're ready, we'll get started with unit 3.2 titled Physical Development Across the Lifespan. Unit 3.2 looks at how humans develop physically. Note that we're not talking about cognitive or social development yet. that comes later in unit 3. This section is specifically about physical development. We'll cover how humans physically change into four chronological parts. Prenatal development, meaning physical development before birth, infant and childhood development, adolescent development, then changes and decline during the adulthood period. Let's start with prenatal development. AP psychology requires you to know about five factors that can influence a child's development during pregnancy. These are terodogens, maternal illness, genetic mutations, hormonal and environmental factors. Terratogens are substances like drugs, alcohol or harmful chemicals that can enter the mother's body and hurt the developing baby. They can cause birth defects or problems with how the baby's brain and body grow. Maternal illness means if the mother has certain infections or diseases during pregnancy, they can affect the baby. For example, viruses like reubella can cause problems with the baby's hearing, vision, or heart. Genetic mutations are changes in the baby's DNA that happen before birth. These changes can lead to conditions like Down syndrome, or other developmental disorders. Hormonal factors refer to the balance of hormones in the mother's body, which helps guide the baby's growth. If hormone levels are too high or too low, the baby's development might be affected. Environmental factors include things like pollution, radiation, or even stress in the mother's surroundings. These can interfere with the baby's growth and lead to health or behavior problems later on. Next up, we have physical development in infancy and childhood. Physical development during these years happens in generally the same order for all children. But the timing of the development can vary. For this stage of life, we need to explore five areas of development. Motor coordination, infant reflexes, depth perception, critical periods, and imprinting. Let's start with motor coordination, which can be broken down into the development of fine motor skills and gross motor skills. Fine motor skills are the small movements we make with our hands and fingers, like picking up a coin, drawing, or buttoning a shirt. Babies usually start developing fine motor skills around 3 to 4 months when they begin reaching for things. And by age 2 to three, many can feed themselves with a spoon or stack small blocks. Gross motor skills are the big movements that use large muscles like crawling, walking, jumping, and climbing. These skills develop earlier than fine motor skills. Most babies start rolling over by 4 to 6 months, crawling around 6 to 10 months, walking by their first birthday, and running or climbing by age 2 to three. Next, we have infant reflexes. These are automatic movements that help babies survive and grow. These reflexes appear at birth or very soon after. One example is the rooting reflex, where a baby turns its head toward a touch on the cheek, helping them find a nipple to feed. This and other reflexes are signs that the baby's nervous system is developing normally. Next, we have emerging depth perception, which is assessed using the visual cliff apparatus. This involves a table that looks like it has a sudden drop, but it's actually covered by clear glass, so the baby won't fall. When babies are placed on the table, they often stop or hesitate when they reach the cliff side. This shows that they can see depth and may be afraid of falling, which means their vision and brain are working together to understand space. Most babies around 6 months old start showing this response. Next, we have critical and sensitive periods. Critical periods are specific times in early development when certain experiences must happen for normal growth. For example, between birth and about 3 months, babies need visual stimulation to develop normal vision. Without it, even if their eyes are later corrected, their brains may not process vision properly. Another critical period happens before age 1 when babies need to form an emotional bond with a caregiver. Missing this window can lead to lasting problems with attachment and trust. While critical periods are periods where developments must occur, sensitive periods are times when the brain is especially ready to learn. But learning can still happen later, just with more effort. From birth to around age three, children are especially good at picking up the sounds of their native language. Between ages 2 and 7, vocabulary grows rapidly and grammar skills start to form. Between ages three and eight, kids are especially quick to develop fine motor skills like writing or drawing. From ages 4 to 10, it's much easier to learn a second language and sound fluent. Finally, between ages 5 and 12, children tend to pick up musical or athletic skills more quickly than they would as teens or adults. Lastly, we have imprinting, which occurs in non-human animals like baby ducks or geese. Imprinting occurs when they form a strong attachment to the first moving object they see after birth. This usually happens within hours of hatching and helps them stay close to a caregiver for safety and survival. Okay, let's turn to adolescent physical development. Here we need to know about puberty and the development of sex characteristics. Puberty is the time when a child's body begins to change into an adult body. It involves physical changes like growing body hair, deeper voices in boys, and developing breasts and girls along with changes in emotions and thinking. The adolescent growth spurt is an event that occurs during puberty. It involves a fast increase in height and weight that usually starts around age 10 to 12 for girls and around age 12 to 14 for boys. It can last for a few years. During puberty, adolescence develop primary sex characteristics which are the body parts directly involved in reproduction. For example, girls begin menstruation known as monarch and boys begin producing sperm known as spermark. They also develop secondary sex characteristics which are physical changes not directly related to reproduction like deeper voices in boys, breast development in girls and growth of body hair in both. As people enter adulthood, their physical development begins to level off. The rapid growth and changes seen in childhood and adolescence slow down and the body reaches its peak in strength, speed, and health, usually in the 20s and early 30s. After this peak, physical decline begins gradually. Women experience a decline in reproductive ability with menopause, which usually happens in their late 40s or early 50s, marking the end of menstruation and fertility. Other changes include slower mobility and reaction time, reduced flexibility, and a gradual loss of vision and hearing sharpness as people age. These changes are normal parts of getting older. Okay, so that's the conclusion of the section on physical development. As always, check the answer key for this section before moving on. I've also added all the keywords for this unit into the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. Now let's move on to unit 3.3. Unit 3.3 explores how sex and gender influence development. Sex refers to the biological differences between males and females such as chromosomes, hormones, and reproductive organs. These biological factors influence development by shaping physical traits like height, muscle growth, voice depth, and the timing of puberty. Typically, females start puberty earlier while males tend to gain more muscle mass during adolescence. Gender, on the other hand, refers to the roles, behaviors, and expectations that a society considers appropriate for males and females. It's more about how a person identifies and how they express themselves, which can vary across cultures and over time. Now, let's take a closer look at how gender influences development by exploring gender schema theory and gender socialization. Gender schema theory says that children learn about gender by forming mental categories or schemas of what it means to be male or female. They use these schemas to guide how they behave, what they pay attention to, and how they understand the world. Gender socialization is the process of learning gender roles through interactions with family, peers, and media. Families often shape gender behavior by giving boys and girls different toys or chores and encouraging certain behaviors. Peers reinforce gender roles by rewarding behaviors that match group expectations like teasing boys who cry or praising girls for being polite. Media also plays a big role by showing characters who act in stereotypical ways which children may copy as they form their own gender identity. Okay, that's all for unit 3.3. Let's move on to unit 3.4 titled cognitive development across the lifespan. Cognitive development refers to how our thinking, learning, and problem solving skills grow and change as we get older. For AP psychology, we need to cover three key conceptual frameworks for understanding cognitive development. These are PJ's theory of cognitive development, Vigodsky's socioultural theory, and cognitive development and change in adulthood. Let's start with PG. You will already be familiar with PJ's concepts of assimilation and accommodation from unit 2.2. To briefly recap, assimilation is when a child takes in new information and fits it into what they already know. For example, if a child sees a zebra for the first time and calls it a horse, they're using assimilation. They're fitting the new animal into an existing idea. Accommodation is when a child changes what they know to better understand something new. In the zebra example, the child might learn that not all four-legged animals are horses, so they create a new category just for zebras. These two processes are part of how children build knowledge. Sometimes development feels continuous because kids are constantly adjusting and learning bit by bit, like through assimilation and accommodation. But PG's stages show that development also happens in discontinuous jumps. Kids think in very different ways at different ages. Let's dive into his discontinuous stages now. The first stage is the sensor motor stage which lasts from birth to about 2 years old. During this time, infants learn through their senses and movements. They explore by grabbing, sucking, and looking. A key milestone in this stage is object permanence, which is when a baby understands that things still exist even when they can't be seen. Like knowing a toy is still there after it's been covered. Next is the pre-operational stage from ages 2 to 7. In this stage, children begin using language and symbols like pretend play. However, their thinking is still very limited. They often show egoentrism, meaning they have trouble seeing things from another person's point of view. They may also believe that objects have feelings or thoughts, which is called animism. Two other key emerging cognitive skills during this stage are reversibility and theory of mind. Reversibility is the cognitive ability to understand that objects or numbers can be changed and then returned back to their original condition. This concept helps children grasp that certain processes like addition and subtraction can be logically reversed. Theory of mind is the understanding that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, desires, and intentions. It allows a child to predict or interpret the behavior of others based on what those others might be thinking or feeling. The third stage is the concrete operational stage which spans ages 7 to 11. Children now start thinking more logically and understand rules, but they still need concrete objects or examples to help them think through problems. A major development here is conservation. The idea that things like volume or number stay the same even when their appearance changes. For example, understanding that a tall, thin glass doesn't hold more water than a short, wide one if both were filled from the same cup. The final stage is the formal operational stage. Beginning around age 12 and continuing into adulthood, at this point, people can think abstractly and reason through hypothetical situations. They can ask big questions, use logic to solve complex problems, and think more deeply about ideas like fairness, justice, and identity. PJ proposed that not all people achieve formal operational thinking, not even adults. Besides PJ, another key theorist of cognitive development is Lev Vagodsky. Vigotssky's theory differs from Pia's by focusing more on how social and cultural interactions shape a child's thinking. While PGE believed cognitive development happens through a child's independent exploration, Vigotssky argued that cognitive development occurs best when children get guidance from others like parents, teachers or peers. Two key terms from the socioultural theory are scaffolding and the zone of proximal development. Scaffolding, a term devised by theorist Jerome Bruner, refers to the support or help given to a child while they are learning something. This help could be asking guiding questions, giving hints, or breaking a task into smaller steps. As the child gets better, the support is slowly removed, just like scaffolding on a building is taken down once it's strong enough to stand on its own. The zone of proximal development, a term devised by Vagotssky, is the gap between what a child can do on their own and what they can do with guidance from someone more skilled. It's the sweet spot for learning where a task is not too easy but not too hard either as long as they get the right help. Lastly, let's look at cognitive change in adulthood. For this, we need to know about two key terms. Crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence. Crystallized intelligence is the ability to use knowledge, skills, and experience that a person has built up over time. It includes things like vocabulary, facts, and general knowledge. Crystallized intelligence tends to stay strong or even improve with age because it is based on long-term learning. By contrast, fluid intelligence is the ability to think quickly, solve new problems, and adapt to new situations without relying on prior knowledge. This type of thinking tends to decline with age as the brain's processing speed and working memory become slower over time. Another way cognitive decline may occur later in life is through age related cognitive disorders. One example is dementia. People with dementia may forget important information, get confused easily, have trouble speaking or making decisions, and find it hard to do everyday tasks. Okay, so that's the conclusion of the section on cognitive development. As always, check the answer key for this section before moving on. I've also added all the keywords for this unit to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. Now, let's move on to unit 3.5 titled communication and language development. To cover the required content for unit 3.5, we'll break it down into three segments. First, we'll explore what language is. Next, we'll explore how language is developed. And third, we'll look at common errors people make when learning a language. Let's begin. AP psychology defines language as a shared system of arbitrary symbols that are rulegoverned and generative. This is a complex definition, so let's break it down into its parts. Arbitrary symbols means that the words we use in a language don't have any natural connection to the things they represent. For example, there's nothing about the sound of the word dog that actually looks or feels like a dog. It's just a symbol that everyone agrees to use. These symbols are often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphems, and semantics. Phonemes are the smallest sounds in a language like the D, O, and G sounds in dog. Morphe are the smallest parts of a word that have meaning like dog is one morphe, but dogs has two. Semantics is simply the meaning of words, what they stand for, and how we understand them when we hear or read them. Rulego governed means that language follows specific rules for how words and sentences are put together so we can understand each other. These rules are part of grammar which includes things like how words change to show tense. For example, walk becomes walked to show it happened in the past or number like adding s to make something plural. Syntax is the part of grammar that tells us the correct order to put words in a sentence. For example, in English, we say, "The cat chased the mouse," not chased the mouse. The cat syntax makes sure the sentence sounds right and makes sense to other people in your language community. Generative means that we can use language to create an endless number of new sentences and ideas, even if we've never heard them before. With just a limited set of words and rules, we can say anything we want, from telling stories to asking questions. Because language lets us combine words in so many different ways. Now let's look at how language is developed. It starts with non-verbal gestures, then moves into four stages. Cooing, babbling, the one-word stage, and telegraphic speech. Non-verbal manual gestures are body movements like pointing or waving that help babies communicate before they can speak. These gestures are used across all cultures and are often one of the first ways babies show what they want or where they are focusing their attention. For example, a baby might point at a toy they want or lift their arms to be picked up. These early gestures are important because they help children connect with others and set the foundation for learning spoken language. Cooing is the first stage of language development and usually starts around 6 to 8 weeks old. In this stage, babies make soft vowel-like sounds such as ooh and ah. These sounds aren't words yet. They're just ways for babies to experiment with their voices and get attention from caregivers. Babbling comes next, starting around 4 to 6 months of age. Babies begin to add consonant sounds to their vocal play, creating sounds like baba or da. While these may sound like real words, at first they don't have meaning. Babbling is an important step because it helps babies practice the sounds they'll need for actual speech. The one-word stage typically begins around 12 months. At this point, babies start using single words to represent whole ideas or needs. For example, saying milk might mean I want milk or there's my milk. Telegraphic speech usually appears around age 18 to 30 months. This is when toddlers start putting two or more words together to form simple sentences, but they leave out smaller, less important words, just like a telegram. For example, they might say, "Want toy or go park." Even though these sentences are short, they show that children are beginning to understand how to combine words to express more complex thoughts. So, that's how language develops. The last thing we need to cover for this section is language learning errors. As people learn a language, they often make mistakes while trying to figure out the rules. One common example is overgeneralization, where they apply a rule too broadly. For example, a child might say run instead of ran because they've learned that adding ed makes a verb past tense and are trying to follow that rule, even though ran is an irregular verb. These kinds of mistakes are normal and show that the learner is trying to understand how the language works. That's it for unit 3.5. Here's our list of the key terms and concepts from this section. They're all covered in the study guide and included in our flashcard set. Get them both through the link in the description. Check your answers to this section of the study guide using the provided answer key. Then let's move on to unit 3.6. Unit 3.6 explores social emotional development, which is the process of learning how to understand and manage emotions, build relationships, and interact with others in healthy ways. As you can see, unit 3.6 is a big one. It explores a range of frameworks for explaining social emotional development. So, let's not waste time. We'll dive straight into the first theory. Bronen Brener's ecological systems theory. Ecological systems theory developed by Yuri Bronen Brener explains how a child's development is influenced by different layers of their environment. Each layer called a system is nested inside the next and they all work together to shape the child's growth and experiences. The micro systemystem is the closest layer to the child and includes the people in settings they interact with directly such as family, school, friends, and daycare. This system has the most immediate impact since it includes the child's daily relationships and experiences. The MESO system is made up of the connections between different parts of the micro system. For example, how well a child's parents communicate with their teachers can affect how the child does in school. When these relationships are strong, they can support the child's development. The exosystem includes settings that the child doesn't directly interact with, but that still affect them. This might include a parents workplace, local government policies, or a sibling school. For example, if a parent has a stressful job, it can influence how they act at home. The macro system includes the larger cultural values, laws, customs, and beliefs of the society the child lives in. It shapes how children are raised, what behaviors are seen as acceptable, and what opportunities are available to them. The chrono system refers to the element of time, both in terms of the child's age and major life events or historical changes. For instance, growing up during a war or a pandemic can have long-term effects on development, just as a family divorce or moving to a new city can. Overall, this theory explains how we don't develop in a vacuum. We are influenced by the people in society around us. The next framework we need to explore for unit 3.6 is the concept of parenting styles. Parenting styles can be placed on a chart using two main dimensions. demandingness, which refers to how much parents expect and control behavior, and responsiveness, which refers to how warm, supportive, and responsive parents are to their child's needs. Each parenting style falls into a different spot based on how high or low it is on these two traits. Authoritarian parenting is high in demandingness, but low in responsiveness. These parents expect strict obedience but are not very emotionally responsive or open to their child's input. Permissive parenting is low in demandingness but high in responsiveness. These parents are warm and accepting but they don't set many rules or limits. Permissive parenting can lead to children struggling with self-discipline, impulsivity, and respecting boundaries. Uninvolved, neglectful parenting is low in both demandingness and responsiveness. These parents provide little structure or support, often leaving children to raise themselves. Uninvolved parenting can result in children feeling insecure and having trouble with emotional regulation, self-esteem, and forming healthy relationships. Authoritative parenting is high in both demandingness and responsiveness. These parents set clear expectations, but also show warmth, listen to their children, and guide them with encouragement. This balanced style is often linked to the most positive outcomes for kids. Our next framework for social emotional development is attachment style. Attachment styles describe how children form emotional bonds with their caregivers and how those bonds affect their behavior and relationships. These styles develop early in life based on how caregivers respond to a child's needs. A secure attachment forms when a caregiver is consistently responsive, comforting, and dependable. Children with secure attachment feel safe exploring the world because they know they can return to their caregiver for support. They tend to trust others and form healthy relationships later in life. An insecure attachment develops when a caregiver is inconsistent, unresponsive, or frightening. These children may struggle with trust, emotional regulation, or close relationships. Insecure attachment comes in three main types: avoidant, anxious, and disorganized. Avoidant attachment happens when caregivers often ignore or reject the child's needs. In response, the child learns to hide their feelings and avoid seeking comfort. They may seem very independent, but often struggle to connect emotionally. Anxious attachment forms when caregivers are inconsistent, sometimes responsive, sometimes not. The child becomes unsure whether they can count on their caregiver, leading them to become clingy, worried, or overly dependent in relationships. Disorganized attachment develops when the caregiver is a source of both comfort and fear, such as in cases of abuse or trauma. The child feels confused and unsafe, often showing unpredictable or fearful behavior. They may have trouble managing emotions and forming stable relationships. Three more elements are connected to attachment styles. temperament, separation anxiety, and comfort versus food. Each help further explain how attachment forms between children and their caregivers. Temperament is a child's natural style of reacting to the world, such as how calm, active, or sensitive they are. Some babies are naturally more easygoing, while others are more fearful, or intense. A child's temperament can affect how easily they form attachments. For example, a sensitive baby might need extra comfort to feel secure, while a more relaxed baby may bond more easily with a variety of caregivers. Separation anxiety happens when young children become upset or scared when a caregiver leaves or when they are around strangers. It usually starts around 8 to 12 months and is a sign that the child has formed an attachment to their caregiver. It shows that the child sees the caregiver as a source of safety and being apart from them feels stressful. Comfort versus food refers to classic studies with baby monkeys by Harry Harlo who showed that attachment is based more on comfort than just meeting physical needs. The monkeys were given two fake mothers, one made of wire that provided food and one made of soft cloth that offered no food. The monkeys spent much more time with the soft, comforting mother, showing that feeling safe and cared for is more important to attachment than just being fed. The next thing we need to look at for unit 3.6 and six is how peer relationships affect social emotional development. Children and adolescence interact with their peers differently. When children are little, they connect with their friends mostly through play. One type is called parallel play, which is when young children play next to each other, but not really with each other. They might both be building with blocks or coloring, but they're doing their own thing. As kids get a little older, they start using pretend play where they make up stories and act them out, like pretending to be superheroes, animals, or playing house. This kind of play helps them learn how to cooperate, use their imagination, and understand other people's feelings. As kids grow into adolescence, their relationships start to change. They begin to spend more time with their friends and care more about what their peers think. During this time, they also show a special kind of thinking called adolescent egoentrism, which means they often focus a lot on themselves and what others might think of them. One way this shows up is through the imaginary audience. Teens may feel like everyone is watching them or judging them, even when no one is actually paying that much attention. For example, if they trip in the hallway, they might think everyone saw and is laughing even if no one noticed. Another part of adolescent egoentrism is the personal fable. This is when teens believe their thoughts, feelings, or experiences are totally unique and that no one else could possibly understand them. For example, they might think no one has ever felt this heartbroken before or nothing bad could ever happen to me. These feelings are normal during adolescence and usually fade as teens grow older and gain more life experience. We've looked at childhood and adolescent relationships, but what about relationships in adulthood? AP psychology requires you know about four elements of the social lives of adults. These are the social clock, emerging adulthood, adult relationships, and attachment styles in adulthood. The social clock is the idea that each culture has its own timeline for when major life events should happen, like finishing school, getting a job, getting married, or having children. For example, in some cultures, adulthood is expected to start right after high school, while in others, it may not be expected until later. If someone follows or falls behind this clock, it can affect how they feel about themselves and how others view them. Emerging adulthood is a stage that some cultures recognize as a time between adolescence and full adulthood. Usually from the late teens through the mid20s. During this time, people are still exploring their identity, trying out different jobs or relationships, and gradually taking on adult responsibilities. It gives young people extra time to figure out who they are before settling into long-term adult roles. As people grow into adulthood, they begin to form close relationships with other adults. These relationships can include romantic partners, chosen families, or deep friendships. Healthy adult relationships are built on mutual support and care where both people give and receive help, love, and respect. Lastly, we need to look at adult attachment styles. Earlier in unit 3, we talked about attachment styles in childhood. Those childhood attachment styles follow us into adulthood, affecting how we build relationships as adults. For example, someone with a secure attachment in childhood usually finds it easier to trust others and build stable relationships. On the other hand, someone with an insecure attachment may struggle with trust, closeness, or fear of being abandoned. These patterns don't have to last forever, but they can shape how adults connect with others. From here, unit 3.6 six pivots to a discussion of another framework that explains social emotional development across the lifespan called the stages of psychosocial development. Eric Ericson's theory of psychosocial development explains how people grow and change socially and emotionally throughout their lives. He believed that as people move through different stages of life, they face specific challenges called crises that help shape their identity, confidence, and relationships. In the first year of life, babies go through the stage of trust versus mistrust. If their caregivers meet their needs with love and care, they learn to trust others and feel safe in the world. But if their needs are often ignored, they may grow up being mistrusting, which can manifest as feeling unsure or fearful. From about 1 to 3 years old, toddlers face the challenge of autonomy versus shame and doubt. During this time, they are learning to do things for themselves like feeding themselves or using the toilet. If adults encourage their efforts, the child feels autonomy, manifesting as pride and independence. But if they are harsh or overly controlling, the child may feel ashamed or unsure of their abilities. Between the ages of 3 and six, children enter the stage of initiative versus guilt. They begin to take more control by asking questions, making plans, and trying new things. When their curiosity and ideas are supported, they learn to take initiative with confidence. But if they are constantly shut down or made to feel annoying, they may feel guilty for trying to take charge. From ages 6 to 12, children go through the stage of industry versus inferiority. At this age, they start focusing on school work, hobbies, and teamwork. If they feel successful and are praised for their efforts, they develop a sense of confidence and capability which Ericson titled industry. If they struggle and feel like they can't keep up, they may start to feel less than others and doubt themselves known as inferiority. The next stage is identity versus role confusion, which happens during the teenage years around 12 to 18. This is when teens start thinking deeply about who they are and what they believe. If they're able to explore different roles and feel supported in the process, they begin to build a strong sense of identity. But if they feel lost, pressured, or unsure, they may struggle with confusion about who they are. In young adulthood, which is from the 20s to early 40s, people face the stage of intimacy versus isolation. This is when they seek close relationships with others, both in friendship and in love. If they've developed a clear identity, they are more likely to build strong, trusting connections. If they haven't, they may feel a sense of isolation, manifesting as loneliness and fear of getting close to people. During middle adulthood, from the 40s to the 60s, people go through the stage of generativity versus stagnation. They often focus on helping others, raising children, contributing to their community, or creating something meaningful. If they feel like they're making a difference, they feel satisfied and useful. If not, they may feel stuck or like their life doesn't matter much. Finally, in ages 60 and up, people reach the stage of integrity versus despair. They reflect on their lives and think about what they've done and who they've become. If they feel proud and fulfilled, they experience integrity manifesting as peace and contentment. If they have many regrets or feel like they missed their purpose, they may feel despair manifesting as disappointment and sadness. This theory shows that our emotional and social growth doesn't stop at childhood. It continues through every part of life, helping shape the kind of person we become. The next concept in unit 3.6 is adverse childhood experiences. Adverse childhood experiences are stressful or harmful events that happen during childhood like abuse, neglect, or growing up in a home with violence or substance problems. These early experiences can affect how a person builds relationships later in life, sometimes making it harder to trust others, feel safe, or handle emotions in a healthy way. Different cultures may see certain experiences as more or less harmful. So what one culture considers a serious childhood hardship might not be viewed the same way in another. Lastly, let's dive into James Marsha's identity status theory. Marsha argued that the process of identity development doesn't happen all at once. It can take time and involves different paths. The theory describes four common patterns. Identity achievement, identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, and identity moratorium. Identity achievement happens when a person has explored different options and made clear choices about who they are. For example, someone might explore several career ideas and eventually decide they want to be a teacher after thinking it through. Identity diffusion is when a person hasn't explored their identity much and hasn't made any strong choices. They might feel unsure about what they believe or what they want to do and haven't really tried to figure it out yet. Identity foreclosure is when someone makes decisions about who they are without exploring other options. For instance, a teen might choose the same religion or career as their parents just because it's expected without thinking about what they personally want. Lastly, identity moratorium is the stage where a person is actively exploring but hasn't made a final decision yet. They might be trying out different beliefs, styles, or goals while figuring out what fits them best. Marsha's theory shows that identity is something that is developed through a process of exploration. Through this exploration process, people attempt to integrate many parts of identity such as racial or ethnic identity, which is how they relate to their cultural background. Gender identity, which is how they understand and express their gender. Sexual orientation, which refers to who they are attracted to. Religious identity, which refers to what they believe spiritually. Occupational identity, which is what kind of work they want to do. and familial identity, which is what role they want to play in their family or what kind of family they want to have. Thinking about these possible selves helps people plan, set goals, and make choices that shape their future. That brings us to the end of unit 3.6. It's a long one with a lot of information, so make sure you complete the study guide and check your work using the answer key. Both are linked in the description. As usual, I've also updated the flashcards to include all our key terms, which are also available through the link in the description. Units 3.7, 3.8, and 3.9 explore the behavioral perspective on learning and development. The behavioral perspective focuses on how people learn through observable experiences. It does not consider cognitive or social emotional factors in learning. Rather, its concern is only with how we learn through experience. This perspective includes three main ways of learning. Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. Unit 3.7 is all about classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, learning happens when two things are linked together over time. For example, if a child always hears a lullaby before bed, they might start to feel sleepy just from hearing the song. AP psychology requires that you know all the classical conditioning concepts listed on the screen. Now we'll go through them one by one starting with the term acquisition. Acquisition is the first stage of learning something new. It's when a person or animal starts to connect two things together. For example, imagine a dog hears a bell and then gets food right after. At first, the bell doesn't mean anything. But if the bell rings every time food comes, the dog starts to expect food when it hears the bell. That learning process, when the dog starts to make the connection between the bell and the food, is called acquisition. It's when the learning is being acquired or picked up. An unconditioned stimulus is something that causes a natural reaction without the person or animal needing to learn it. For example, if you smell delicious pizza, you might start to feel hungry. You didn't have to be trained to feel hungry when you smell food. It just happens naturally. In this case, the smell of pizza is the unconditioned stimulus because it makes you feel hungry all on its own. An unconditioned response is the natural reaction that happens when you experience an unconditioned stimulus. Using the pizza example again, the hunger you feel when you smell the pizza is the unconditioned response. You didn't learn to feel hungry. It just happens automatically. It's like when you flinch if something comes near your face quickly. That reaction is natural and automatic, which is why it's called unconditioned. A conditioned stimulus is something that starts off as neutral. It doesn't mean anything at first, but after being paired with something important, it begins to cause a reaction. For example, let's go back to the dog and the bell. At first, the bell sound doesn't matter to the dog. But if the bell is always followed by food, the dog starts to expect food when it hears the bell. Now, the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus because the dog has learned to react to it. A conditioned response is the learned reaction to something that used to mean nothing. Using the same example, once the dog hears the bell and starts to drool, even if no food shows up, that drooling is a conditioned response. It didn't happen before. The dog had to learn it by hearing the bell with the food over and over. So now the dog reacts to the bell in the same way it reacted to the food. Extinction is what happens when an association starts to fade away. Let's say the dog hears the bell, but now food never comes after it. Over time, the dog will stop drooling when it hears the bell because it learns that the bell doesn't mean food anymore. The reaction has died out, which is why it's called extinction. It doesn't mean the dog forgot completely. It just stopped responding the way it used to. Spontaneous recovery is when a learned response suddenly comes back after it had faded away. For example, imagine a dog learned to drool when it heard a bell, but then stopped drooling because the bell was no longer followed by food. That's extinction. A few days later, the bell rings again, and the dog suddenly drools even though no food comes. That surprise return of the old reaction is called spontaneous recovery. It's like the brain remembered the connection for a moment. Stimulus discrimination is when a person or animal learns to tell the difference between similar things and only reacts to the one that matters. Let's say a dog learns to drool when it hears a high-pitched bell. If it hears a low-pitched bell and doesn't drool, that means it knows the difference between the two sounds. It has learned that only the high-pitched bell means food is coming. That's stimulus discrimination. Reacting only to the specific thing that was learned. Stimulus generalization is the opposite of discrimination. It happens when someone reacts to things that are similar to the original thing they learned. For example, if a dog learns to drool when it hears a high-pitched bell and then also starts drooling when it hears a phone ring because it sounds kind of the same, that's stimulus generalization. The dog is treating similar sounds as if they all mean food is coming. Higher order conditioning is when something new gets added to the chain of learning. Let's say a dog already learned to drool when it hears a bell because it knows the bell means food is coming. Now imagine you flash a light right before the bell rings. After a while, the dog starts drooling just when it sees the light, even if the bell doesn't ring. The dog has learned that the light predicts the bell and the bell predicts the food. That's higher order conditioning. Learning built on top of a previous learning. Counter conditioning is when you replace a bad or unwanted reaction with a better one by teaching a new connection. Imagine a kid who's scared of dogs. Every time a dog comes close, the kid gets nervous. But if the kid is given something they love, like their favorite candy, whenever a calm dog is nearby, they might start to feel better around dogs. Over time, they stop feeling scared and start feeling okay. That's counter conditioning. Changing the emotion linked to something by teaching a new, more positive reaction. Taste aversion is when you avoid a food because it once made you feel sick, even if the food wasn't the real cause. For example, if you eat spaghetti and then get the stomach flu later, your brain might link the sickness to the spaghetti. After that, just smelling or seeing spaghetti could make you feel queasy. That's taste aversion. Your body learns very quickly to stay away from something that it thinks made you sick, even after just one bad experience. A related term is one trial learning where a reaction to a stimulus was so strong that you developed a learned response after being exposed to that stimulus just once. The association is instantly so strong that it is not strengthened by further pairings. Biological preparedness is the idea that some things are easier for us to learn because our brains and bodies are wired for it. Think about how quickly people develop a fear of snakes or spiders, even if they've never had a bad experience with one. It's like the brain is already on alert for those things because long ago being afraid of them helped humans survive. On the other hand, it's much harder to develop a fear of something like a flower or spoon because those things were never a threat. That's biological preparedness. Our natural built-in readiness to learn some associations faster than others because they helped us stay safe in the past. Habituation is when you stop reacting to something because it keeps happening over and over without anything important following it. Imagine you move to a new house near an airport. At first, every time a plane flies overhead, it's super loud and hard to ignore. But after a few days, you hardly notice it anymore. Your brain has figured out that the train noise doesn't matter, so it tunes it out. That's habituation. Learning to stop responding to something that turns out to be harmless and predictable. Okay, that brings us to the end of our classical conditioning terms and concepts. Check your answers to the classical conditioning section of the study guide using the answer key. I've also added all these terms to the flash card set. Next up, let's look at our operant conditioning terms and concepts. Classical conditioning is all about associating two events or objects. Through classical conditioning, we learn when one thing triggers another thing, like a bell triggering hunger. But operant conditioning is about learning from consequences. Consequences include things like praise, money, or a punishment. For example, if a student gets praised every time they finish their homework, they might start doing it more often because they've learned that it leads to something good. AP psychology requires that you know all the operant conditioning concepts listed on the screen. Now, we'll go through them one by one, starting with the concept of law of effect. The law of effect is the idea that actions are more likely to happen again if they lead to something good and less likely to happen if they lead to something bad. Think of it like this. If you study hard for a test and get a good grade, you're more likely to study hard again next time. But if you tell a joke in class and nobody laughs, you might not tell jokes in class anymore. This law helps explain how people and animals learn what to do or not do based on the results of their actions. Reinforcement and punishment are ways to change someone's behavior. Reinforcement means you're trying to make a behavior happen more often. Punishment means you're trying to make a behavior happen less often. Each of these can be positive or negative. But here's the trick. Positive doesn't mean good, and negative doesn't mean bad. In this case, positive means you add something, and negative means you take something away. Let's break it down. Positive reinforcement is when you add something good to make the behavior happen more. For example, if you get a cookie for cleaning your room, you'll want to clean your room again. The cookie is a reward that was added. Negative reinforcement is when you take away something bad to make the behavior happen more. For example, if you buckle your seat belt and the loud beeping stops, you're more likely to buckle up right away next time. The annoying sound was taken away. So, that's negative reinforcement. Positive punishment is when you add something unpleasant to make the behavior happen less. For example, if you talk back and get extra chores, you'll probably think twice before doing it again. The chores were added, so that's positive punishment. Negative punishment is when you take away something you like to make the behavior happen less. For example, if you stay out too late and your phone gets taken away, you'll be less likely to stay out next time. The phone was taken away, so that's negative punishment. So remember, reinforcement means more of the behavior. Punishment means less of the behavior. Positive means adding something. Negative means taking something away. Okay, now let's move on to our next term, reinforcers. A reinforcer is anything that makes a behavior more likely to happen again. It's like a reward. If you do something and then get a reinforcer, you'll probably want to do that thing again. There are two main types, primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers. A primary reinforcer is something that you naturally like or need. You don't have to learn to want it. It just feels good or helps you survive. Things like food, water, or warmth are primary reinforcers. For example, giving a dog a treat is a primary reinforcer because dogs naturally enjoy food. A secondary reinforcer is something you learn to like because it's linked to a primary reinforcer. Money is a good example. You can't eat money or drink it, but you've learned that money can buy you things you want, like food or games. Praise, stickers, and points in a video game can also be secondary reinforcers because they usually lead to something good. So, in short, primary reinforcers are naturally reward. Secondary reinforcers are learned rewards like money or prey. Okay. Next is reinforcement discrimination. Reinforcement discrimination is when a person or animal learns that a certain behavior only gets rewarded in specific situations, not all the time. It's like learning to tell when it's the right time to do something. For example, imagine a student learns that raising their hand in class gets them praise from the teacher, but they also learn that raising their hand at the dinner table doesn't get them anything. Over time, they figure out that raising their hand only works in class, not everywhere. That's reinforcement discrimination. Learning when a behavior will be reinforced and when it won't. It helps people and animals avoid wasting effort and use their behavior in the right place at the right time. But sometimes we also learn reinforcement generalization. This is when a behavior that gets rewarded in one situation starts to show up in other similar situations even if there's no reward there yet. It's like the behavior spreads. For example, let's say a child gets praised for saying please at home. After a while, they also start saying please at school, at restaurants, and at friends houses, even if no one gives them praise every time. That's reinforcement generalization. The child learned that saying please is a good behavior. So, they start using it in more places. So, while discrimination is about knowing when not to do a behavior, generalization is about trying the behavior in new places. Next up, we have the term shaping. Shaping is a way of teaching someone a new behavior by rewarding small steps that lead to the final goal. These small steps are called successive approximations. Each one gets a little closer to the full behavior you want. For example, let's say you're helping a toddler learn to say the word banana. At first, the child might only say b. You smile and clap to show that it's a good start. After some time, they say ba and you cheer again. Finally, they say the full word banana and you give them a big hug or a sticker. Each of those small improvements, b then banana, then banana, are successive approximations. You're shaping their behavior by reinforcing each step that moves them closer to saying the full word. Instinctive drift is when an animal starts doing its natural behaviors instead of the one it was trained to do. For example, imagine you train a dog to sit still when a small toy rabbit runs past. At first, the dog learns to stay put and gets rewarded with a treat. But after a while, the dog starts chasing the rabbit instead of sitting still. That's instinctive drift. Even though it was trained to stay, its natural instinct to chase small moving things kicks in and it stops following the learned behavior. Superstitious behavior is a learned behavior that occurs when someone thinks their action caused a result, even when it didn't. For example, imagine a student wears a red shirt on the day they get an A on a test. They might start believing the red shirt brought them good luck, even though it had nothing to do with their grade. So, next time there's a test, they wear the same shirt again, hoping it helps. This is superstitious behavior. When you repeat an action because you think it caused something good or bad, even if it really didn't. Learned helplessness happens when someone gives up because they feel like nothing they do will change the outcome. In other words, they can't identify a reward or punishment following a behavior. Imagine a child who keeps failing math tests no matter how hard they try. Eventually, they stop studying or trying at all because they believe, "Why bother? I'll fail anyway." Lastly, reinforcement schedules are different ways of giving rewards to encourage a behavior. We can break reinforcement schedules down into two categories, continuous reinforcement and partial reinforcement. Continuous reinforcement is given every single time the behavior happens. For example, a dog gets a treat every time it sits. The benefit of continuous reinforcement is it tends to lead to quick results. But there's a downside. If the treats stop, the behavior can disappear quickly, too. Partial reinforcement is when the reward only comes some of the time. The benefit of partial reinforcement is that it makes the behavior more likely to last, even when rewards don't come often because the person or animal keeps trying in case the reward shows up. The downside is that the behavior may take a longer time to emerge in the first place. There are four key types of partial reinforcement you need to know about for AP psychology. fixed interval schedules, variable interval schedules, fixed ratio schedules, and variable ratio schedules. Interval schedules refer to the passing of time. A reward is given after either a fixed or variable amount of time has passed. Ratio schedules refer to the number of responses shown. A reward is given after either a fixed or variable amount of desirable behaviors have been demonstrated. In the fixed interval schedule, a reward is given after a set amount of time has passed as long as the behavior happened. For example, a student might get a piece of candy for staying on task every 10 minutes. The time stays the same each time, so people often do the behavior more as the reward time gets closer. The next type of partial reinforcement is a variable interval schedule. This means the reward comes after different amounts of time and the person doesn't know when. An example is checking your phone for a message. You might check often because a message could come at any moment. In a fixed ratio schedule, the person or animal gets a reward after a set number of actions. For example, a worker might get paid after assembling five toys. They know exactly how many actions are needed, so they may work fast to reach the reward. In a variable ratio schedule, the reward comes after a changing number of actions, and the person never knows exactly when. Slot machines are a good example. People keep pulling the lever because they might win after five tries or 50. This type of schedule is very strong because the surprise keeps the behavior going for a long time. Okay, that brings us to the end of the operant conditioning section. All these terms have been added to the flashcard set. Make sure you test your knowledge of this section using the study guide and answer key. And when you're ready, we'll move on to our third behaviorist perspective, social learning theory. Social learning theory is the idea that people learn by watching others in a process of observation and imitation. Instead of learning only through rewards and punishments like in traditional behaviorism, social learning theory says we can also learn just by observing what happens to someone else. Key terms in social learning theory include vicarious conditioning, modeling, insight learning, latent learning, and cognitive maps. Vicarious conditioning happens when someone learns by watching what happens to someone else. For example, if a student sees their classmate get praised for answering a question, they might be more likely to raise their hand, too. They didn't get the praise themselves, but they learned from watching it happen to someone else. This includes vicarious reinforcement, which involves learning from seeing other people getting rewarded, and vicarious punishments, which involves learning from seeing other people getting punished. Modeling is when someone copies the behavior of another person called a model. The more similar the model is to the observer, the more likely the behavior is to be copied. For example, a child is more likely to imitate someone close to their age or someone they admire, like an older sibling. People also copy behaviors that seem successful or socially accepted. Insight learning happens when someone suddenly figures out a solution to a problem without being taught, without trial and error, and without watching anyone else. It's like a light bulb moment. For example, a chimpanzee might suddenly realize it can stack boxes to reach a banana, even if it has never seen anyone do it before. The answer comes from thinking, not from copying or being rewarded. Latent learning is when someone learns something but doesn't show it until there's a reason to use it. For example, a child might learn the layout of their school just by walking around, even if they're not trying to memorize it. Then one day when they need to find the office quickly, they suddenly show they know the way. The learning was there the whole time. It was just hidden or latent until needed. Latent learning is often demonstrated by cognitive maps, which is our last term. Cognitive maps are mental pictures of places or environments that we build in our minds. These maps help us find our way around. For example, after walking through a new mall a few times, you might be able to picture where the food court is, even if you're not looking at signs. You didn't need a reward or someone showing you. You built a mental map just by being there and paying attention. So, you've now got all the key information you need for unit 3, but you'll need to have the ability to apply it in the exam. So, here's what you need to do next. Grab the study guide in the video description to reinforce your knowledge of the information. Become a premium member to get an edge on your studies. You'll get in-depth tutorials and video walkthroughs of common unit 3 questions you could face in the AP exam and advanced study guides to help you ace the exam. And once you feel confident about unit 3, we'll move on to unit 4. Okay, let's dive in. Unit 4 covers social psychology and personality in seven sections. Let's dive right into the first section which is titled attribution theory and person perception. Unit 4.1 focuses on attribution which is the process of explaining why someone acts a certain way. Generally, we don't just notice other people's behavior. We try to figure out what caused it. To understand attributions, we need to know about types of attribution. People's explanatory style and attribution biases. Two types of attribution are dispositional attributions and situational attributions. Let's start with dispositional. This is when we explain someone's behavior by pointing to who they are as a person. We assume their actions reflect personality traits, intelligence, or internal qualities. For example, if someone forgets your birthday, you might think they're careless or selfish. That's a dispositional attribution. You're blaming who they are, not what they're dealing with. Situational attributions are when we explain behavior by pointing to what's happening around the person. We assume their actions are caused by external events, not their personality. For example, if someone forgets your birthday, you might assume they've been stressed or overwhelmed. That's a situational attribution. You're blaming the situation, not the person. Now, let's move on to explanatory style. Explanatory style refers to the way people usually explain the good and bad events in their lives. An optimistic explanatory style means someone tends to see good events as their own doing and bad events as temporary or caused by external things. A pessimistic explanatory style means someone tends to blame themselves for bad events and believe those problems will last a long time. This style can influence motivation, resilience, and mental health. Next, we need to look at attribution biases. These are predictable errors people make when explaining behavior. There are three main ones to know. The actor observer bias, the fundamental attribution error, and the self-serving bias. Actor observer bias happens when people explain their own actions by pointing to the situation, but explain other people's actions by pointing to their personality. For example, if you snap at someone, you might say it was because you were tired. But if they snap at you, you might say it's because they're rude. That second part, where humans tend to overuse dispositional attribution when explaining others behaviors, is also known as the fundamental attribution error. Here's another example of the fundamental attribution error. If someone is quiet in class, you might assume they're unfriendly even though they might just be nervous. Here's another concept that plays with the same set of assumptions. It's called selfserving bias. In this one, people tend to take credit for their successes and blame outside forces for their failures. For example, if you win a game, you might say it's because you're talented. But if you lose, you might blame the weather, the referee, or your equipment. Before finishing up unit 4.1, we need to look at a few more beliefs and behaviors that influence how people see themselves in others. These are locus of control, the mere exposure effect, self-fulfilling prophecy and social comparison. Locus of control refers to a person's belief about what causes the events in their life. There are two main types. Internal locus of control and external locus of control. Internal locus of control is when someone believes that their actions and decisions shape what happens to them. A person with an internal locus might say, "I got an A because I studied hard." Or, "I can fix this problem by trying something different." This mindset often leads to greater motivation and responsibility. External locus of control is when someone believes that outside forces like luck, fate, or other people determine what happens. A person with an external locus might say, "I got lucky on that test." or there's nothing I can do to change the situation. This mindset can sometimes reduce motivation or make people feel powerless. Mere exposure effect is the idea that people tend to like things more the more they are exposed to them. This happens without any logical reason. Just seeing or hearing something again and again can make it feel more familiar and likable. For example, a song you didn't like at first might grow on you after you've heard it a few times. The same can happen with logos, people, or even foods. Self-fulfilling prophecy is when a person's belief or expectation leads them to act in ways that make the belief come true. For example, if you think you're bad at math, you might not try very hard. As a result, you do poorly on tests, confirming your belief, even though your behavior helped create that outcome. These patterns can happen in school, friendships, or even job settings. Social comparison is the process of judging yourself by comparing yourself to others. There are two main types, upward comparison and downward comparison. We'll also examine a related term called relative deprivation. Upward comparison happens when someone compares themselves to someone who seems better off like someone with more money, more talent, or better grades. This can sometimes motivate people to improve, but it can also lead to feelings of jealousy or self-doubt. Downward comparison happens when someone compares themselves to someone who seems worse off. This can boost confidence and make someone feel better about their own situation. Relative deprivation is a feeling that can come from social comparison. It's when someone feels like they're missing out, not because they truly have too little, but because they think others have more. For example, someone might feel unhappy with their perfectly good phone just because their friend has the newest model. As you can see, this is a negative consequence of upward social comparison. Okay, that's it for unit 4.1. Here is the list of terms that we've covered in this section. I've included all these words and simple definitions for each in the flashcard set, which is available through the link in the description. You should have completed the study guide for this section now. Check the answer key for this section before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 4.2. Unit 4.2 2 focuses on how attitudes are formed, why they sometimes change, and how certain beliefs and thought patterns shape how we view others. The key concepts include stereotypes, implicit attitudes, belief perseverance, and cognitive dissonance. Stereotypes are generalized beliefs or concepts about a group of people. They often form when we try to simplify complex social information and make quick judgments. While stereotypes can reduce mental effort by allowing us to make faster decisions, they are usually overly broad and inaccurate. Stereotypes can lead to biased thinking and they are often the root of prejudice and discrimination. Once formed, stereotypes can shape how we perceive others and how we act toward them, often without us realizing it. Implicit attitudes are beliefs or evaluations that people hold without being fully aware of them. These attitudes can influence behavior even if a person consciously believes something different. Four important examples of implicit bias are the just world phenomenon. Outgroup homogeneity bias, in-group bias, and ethnosentrism. Just world phenomenon is the belief that people get what they deserve. This belief can lead to blaming victims for their misfortunes and assuming that good things only happen to good people. It reflects an implicit attitude that the world is fair, even when it isn't. Outgroup homogeneity bias is the tendency to see members of other groups as all the same, while seeing members of your own group as unique individuals. This bias can make people assume that everyone in a group they don't belong to shares the same beliefs, traits, or behaviors. In-group bias is the tendency to prefer and favor people from your own group. This supports stronger loyalty to your group. However, it can lead to issues such as discrimination during hiring processes. Ethnosentrism is a form of in-roup bias. It is the belief that your own culture, group, or ethnicity is superior to others. This bias can lead you to negatively judge other cultures, customs, and traditions unthinkingly. Belief perseverance is when people continue to believe something even after they've been shown evidence that it's false. Even strong evidence may not be enough to change the belief. People experiencing belief perseverance may engage in confirmation bias. Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for and pay attention to information that supports what we already believe while ignoring or rejecting information that goes against it. This bias helps keep belief perseverance alive by filtering out anything that might challenge our current view. Cognitive dissonance is the uncomfortable feeling you get when you believe one thing but do something that doesn't match that belief. For example, if someone sees themselves as honest but tells a lie, they may feel stress or tension. To reduce that discomfort, they may change their behavior, adjust their beliefs, or justify their actions in a way that makes them feel more consistent. Okay, that's it for unit 4.2. Here is the list of terms that we've covered in this section. I've included all these words and simple definitions for each in the flashcard set which is available through the link in the description. At this point, you should have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 4.3 titled Psychology of Social Situations. Unit 4.3 explores the psychology of social situations. The main ideas from this unit are listed on the screen now, which we'll go through one by one. I've included terms that are explicitly mentioned in the AP psychology curriculum. So, you may be assessed on any one of these terms and concepts. First, we have social norms. These are the unwritten rules that guide how people behave in different situations. These expectations tell us what is considered normal, acceptable, or polite in a particular setting or culture. For example, shaking hands when you meet someone or standing in line instead of cutting ahead are behaviors driven by social norms. They help people get along and make social life more predictable. People often follow these norms automatically, but breaking them can lead to social disapproval or even punishment. Next is social influence theory, which explains how people's thoughts and actions are shaped by the presence and behavior of others. In other words, how do people consciously and subconsciously change their behavior when other people are around them? There are two main types of social influence. Normative social influence and informational social influence. Normative social influence happens when people conform because they want to be liked or accepted. In this case, the goal is to fit in. Even if someone privately disagrees with a group, they may go along with it to avoid conflict or embarrassment. A common example is peer pressure where someone may adopt a group's behavior to be part of the crowd. Informational social influence happens when people conform because they believe others know more than they do. This type of influence is based on the desire to be correct. For example, if you're unsure how to behave at a formal dinner, you might watch what others do and copy their behavior. Our next term is elaboration likelihood model. The elaboration likelihood model explains how people are persuaded by messages. It identifies two routes of persuasion. The central route and the peripheral route. Central route to persuasion happens when people carefully consider the arguments in a message. This type of persuasion relies on logic, evidence, and critical thinking. It's more likely to occur when the topic is personally relevant and the person is motivated to think deeply. For example, someone deciding which college to attend might compare tuition costs, graduation rates, and job placement data. Peripheral route persuasion happens when people are influenced by superficial cues rather than the actual content of the message. This includes things like the speaker's attractiveness, confidence, or popularity. One example is the halo effect, which is the tendency to assume that someone who is good-looking or charming must also be intelligent or trustworthy. Advertisements often rely on this route by using celebrities or flashy visuals to persuade without giving much information. Next up, we have two techniques used to increase the chances that someone will say yes to a request. They are called the foot in the door technique and the door in the face technique. The foot in the door technique involves starting with a small request that most people will agree to. After they say yes, a larger request is made. People are more likely to agree to the bigger favor because saying yes to the first request makes them feel committed. For example, someone might ask you to sign a petition first, then later ask you to donate money. The door in the face technique starts with a large request that is likely to be rejected. After the person says no, a much smaller request is made. Because the second request feels like a compromise, people are more likely to agree to it. For example, if someone asks you for $100 and you say no, you might feel more comfortable giving $10 when they ask next. Next up, we have the terms conformity and obedience. Conformity is when people change their behavior to match group norms. This can be subtle, like laughing at a joke you don't find funny because everyone else is, or more serious, like going along with harmful behavior because no one else speaks up. Research shows that people are more likely to conform when the group is unanimous, when the group has high status, or when the individual feels insecure. Obedience is when someone follows direct instructions from an authority figure. This can be helpful, like following a doctor's advice, or harmful, like obeying unethical orders. Classic studies like Stanley Mgrim's shock experiment showed that ordinary people can follow orders even when they believe those orders cause harm, especially when the authority figure is nearby, appears legitimate, and takes responsibility for the outcome. Next up, we have cultural values. AP psychology requires you know how culture can influence how you perceive and behave towards yourself and others. For this you need to understand three important concepts. Individualism, collectivism, and multiculturalism. Individualism is a cultural value that emphasizes personal goals, independence, and self-exression. People in individualist cultures often see themselves as separate from others and are encouraged to stand out, compete, and make their own choices. Collectivism emphasizes group goals, loyalty, and social harmony. People in collectivist cultures tend to see themselves as part of a group such as a family or community, and they often prioritize group needs over personal desires. Multiculturalism is the belief that different cultural backgrounds should be recognized and valued within a society. It encourages people to maintain their cultural identity while also participating in a shared national or social culture. Multiculturalism promotes tolerance, inclusion, and respect for diversity. Our next term is group membership. Being in a group changes how people behave. Some effects are positive like increased confidence or teamwork while others can lead to poor decisions or risky behavior. For this section, AP psychology requires you know about the following terms. Group polarization, group think, diffusion of responsibility, social loafing, and de-individuation. Group polarization happens when people in a group discussion move toward more extreme positions than they held at the start. Talking with like-minded individuals can create an echo chamber. This strengthens and exacerbates initial opinions without any push back or counterpoints being presented for balance. Group think is when the desire for group agreement becomes so strong that people avoid disagreement or critical thinking. This can lead to bad decisions because no one speaks up against flawed ideas. It often happens in groups that are very cohesive, have strong leaders, or are under pressure to make quick decisions. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when individuals in a group feel less responsible for taking action. They assume someone else will handle the problem. Social loafing is when people put in less effort on group tasks than they would if they were doing the tasks alone. This often happens when individual effort can't be easily tracked. You might have experienced this in school group work where some people in the group ride the coattails of the one or two people doing the hard work. De-individuation is when people in groups lose their sense of personal identity and self-control. This can lead to impulsive, aggressive or destructive behavior. It often happens in crowds or during protests when people feel anonymous and less accountable. Next up, we have the concept of social facilitation. This is the effect of an audience on task performance. This hypothesis argues that the presence of others increases arousal, which helps on easy tasks but hurts performance on harder ones. Let's break that down. Essentially, when people are doing something simple or familiar, having others around usually helps them do better. For example, a student who has practiced a speech many times may perform even better when presenting in front of a class. However, when someone is doing something difficult or new, an audience can actually make performance worse. For example, someone trying to solve a complex math problem might freeze up when others are watching. Our next key term is the false consensus effect. This is the tendency to overestimate how much other people agree with us. When people hold a belief, they often assume that it's more common than it really is. For example, someone who strongly supports a particular political issue may assume that most people agree with them. In reality, the broader population might be much more divided. This bias can create a false sense of confidence. Next up, we have the concept of superordinate goals. Superordinate goals are shared goals that require cooperation between groups. These goals can help reduce tension, prejudice, and rivalry. When two competing groups must work together to succeed, they often begin to see each other more positively due to their shared superordinate goals. However, even when groups have superordinate goals, short-term interest can take over. This is called the social trap. Here's an example. We all have the superordinate goal of reducing pollution in the environment, but some groups might decide it's in their short-term interest to pollute more in order to make money. This benefits the group in the short term but harms everyone in the long term. That's the social trap at work. Next up, we have industrial organizational psychology. This is the study of how people behave at work. This field of psychology is all about finding ways to make jobs better for both the workers and the company. It brings together the research on how people act in groups and applies it to make work better for everyone. Here are two key findings from industrial organizational psychology. First, it finds that happy workers are more productive. When people feel good about their jobs, like when they're treated fairly and know what's expected, they usually try harder and get more done. Second, it shows that good bosses make a big difference. Bosses who listen, give clear instructions, and treat people with respect help their team stay motivated and work better together. So basically, industrial organizational psychology helps companies figure out how to make work a better place for everyone. Our second last term is altruism. This refers to helping others without expecting anything in return. True altruism is considered selfless, but researchers have found that people often help for complex reasons, meaning pure altruism isn't as common as you might think. Two interesting explanations for altruism are the social reciprocity norm and the social responsibility norm. The social reciprocity norm is the expectation that favors or kindness should be returned. If someone helps you, you're expected to help them back. Essentially, you've incurred social debt that needs to be repaid. For example, if a classmate lends you their notes when you miss school, you might feel obligated to return the favor in the future. The social responsibility norm is the belief that people should help others who depend on them or who can't help themselves. For example, adults are expected to care for children. And many people feel a duty to help strangers who are in obvious need, like someone who has fallen on the sidewalk. This norm is especially strong when the person in need is not responsible for their situation. Lastly, we have the bystander effect. The bystander effect is when people are less likely to help someone in need if there are other people around because everyone assumes someone else will do it. Two factors predict whether someone is likely to help. Situational variables and attentional variables. Situational variables are things about the situation that can change how likely someone is to help. For example, the more people who are around, the less likely each person is to help because they think someone else will. If the situation clearly looks like an emergency or the person in trouble seems helpless, people are more likely to step in. Attentional variables are about whether someone is paying attention. If a person is in a rush or distracted, they might not even notice what's happening. But if they are focused and realize no one else is helping, they're more likely to act. Okay, that was a lot. So, make sure you complete the study guide for this section and check the answer key before moving on. It might take some time to memorize all these terms, so I've added all of them to the flashcard set that you can get through the link in the description. When you're ready, we'll move on to unit 4.4 titled psychonamic and humanistic theories of personality. This unit looks at two different ways psychologists understand personality, the psychonamic theory and the humanistic theory. Let's start with the psychonamic theory. The psychonamic theory explains personality as being shaped by unconscious thoughts, memories, and desires, especially those formed in early childhood. According to this view, we are often unaware of the true reasons for our behavior because they are buried deep in the unconscious mind. You may recognize the founder of this theory, Sigman Freud. Two important ideas in the psychonamic perspective are ego defense mechanisms and projective tests. Ego defense mechanisms are automatic mental responses that protect a person from feelings of stress, conflict, or emotional pain. They help reduce anxiety by keeping difficult thoughts or feelings out of conscious awareness. Examples include denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, and sublimation. Denial is refusing to accept a painful or threatening reality. A person in denial may insist they are fine after a breakup even though they're deeply upset. Displacement is redirecting strong emotions from the original source to a safer target. For example, someone angry at their boss might come home and yell at a sibling instead. Projection is when a person attributes their own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to someone else. If someone feels jealous, they might accuse others of being jealous of them. Rationalization is creating logical sounding excuses to avoid facing uncomfortable truths. A student who cheats on a test might say, "Everyone does it, so it's not a big deal." Reaction formation is behaving in a way that is the opposite of what one actually feels. A person who feels insecure might act overly confident and arrogant to hide their self-doubt. Regression is reverting to behaviors from an earlier stage of development. A stressed teenager might start whining or throwing tantrums like a young child. Repression is the unconscious blocking of painful memories or thoughts. For example, a person who experienced a traumatic event might have no memory of it later in life. Sublimation is redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable or productive actions. A person with aggressive urges might take up boxing or competitive sports. Now, let's look at projective tests. These are tests used by psychonamic psychologists to explore hidden thoughts, emotions, and conflicts. These tests present vague images or prompts and ask the person to describe what they see or what comes to mind. The idea is that people will project their unconscious thoughts into their answers, revealing feelings they may not be aware of. Common examples include the Roarshack inkplot test where people describe what they see in abstract ink blots and the thematic app perception test where people create stories about pictures of social scenes. Now let's pivot to the humanistic theory. While the psychonamic theory spends a lot of time looking at our subconscious, humanistic psychology focuses on conscious experiences, free will, and the drive for personal growth. This perspective sees people as naturally good and capable of reaching their full potential if they are given the right environment. Two central ideas in this theory are unconditional positive regard and the self-actualizing tendency. Let's start with unconditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard means being fully accepted and loved without any conditions. When people feel valued no matter what they do or say, they are more likely to develop a healthy and confident sense of self. For example, like a parent who tells their child, "I love you no matter what grade you get," is showing unconditional positive regard. This kind of support helps the child feel safe to be honest, take risks, and grow. Now, let's look at the self-actualizing tendency. The self-actualizing tendency is the inner drive people have to become the best version of themselves. It involves developing personal talents, pursuing meaningful goals, and living in a way that feels true to who they are. For example, an artist who dedicates their life to expressing themselves through painting, even if it's not financially rewarding, is following their self-actualizing tendency. According to humanistic theorists, this pursuit of authenticity and growth, is the most important motivation in life. Okay, that's it for unit 4.4. Here's the list of key terms from this section. I've added them all to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. At this point, you should also have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 4.5. This unit looks at two major perspectives in personality psychology. The social cognitive theory of personality and trait theories of personality. Social cognitive theory explains personality as the result of a continuous interaction between three forces, personal factors, behavior, and environment. This three-part model is called reciprocal determinism, and it's often shown as a triangle. One point of the triangle is your personal factors. This includes your thoughts, emotions, beliefs, and biological traits. The second point is behavior or the actions you choose to take. The third point is the environment, meaning the social and physical situations around you. According to this theory, all three points influence each other in a constant loop. The theory places three additional terms in the personal factors corner of the triangle. Self-concept, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. Self-concept refers to how you view yourself, your identity, roles, values, and sense of who you are in the world. But self-concept isn't created in isolation. It's shaped by your behavior and by how the environment responds to you. For example, if you believe you're bad at public speaking, that's your self-concept. You might avoid speaking in class, that's your behavior, which causes teachers and classmates to overlook you. That's your environment. That social feedback reinforces your belief that you're bad at public speaking, and the cycle continues. The opposite can happen, too. If you believe you're a good problem solver, your self-concept, you might offer ideas in group discussions, your behavior, and your classmates might look to you for input while your teacher gives you positive feedback. That's your environment. That support strengthens your confidence and shapes your future choices. In both examples, your self-concept is not just something you have. It's something that changes and evolves through reciprocal interactions. Self-efficacy is also part of the personal factors corner. It refers to your belief in your ability to handle a specific task or challenge. When you have high self-efficacy, you're more likely to try new things and push through difficulty. Those experiences then shape how others respond to you and how you see yourself in the future. Self-esteem is another part of personal factors. It refers to your overall sense of self-worth, how much you like and value yourself. like self-efficacy and self-concept. It both influences your behavior and is shaped by how people treat you in different situations. So to sum it all up, your self-beliefs affect your behavior and influence how others interact with you. In turn, you see how others are interacting with you, which will feed back into your self-beliefs. Positive self-beliefs tend to have a positive feedback loop, while negative self-beliefs tend to have a negative feedback loop. Now let's look at trait theories. Trait theories of personality focus on identifying the core characteristics that define who you are. According to this view, your personality is made up of traits that you have from birth and that follow you throughout your life and in all situations. For example, someone who is highly anxious will likely react with nervousness in many types of situations, not just one. One of the most widely accepted trait theories is the big five theory of personality. This theory suggests that personality is made up of five broad traits that exist in all people. Each trait exists on a continuum from low to high and most people fall somewhere in the middle rather than at the extremes. The traits are agreeableness, openness to experience, extraversion, conscientiousness, and emotional stability. Agreeableness reflects how kind, cooperative, and empathetic someone is. People who score high in agreeableness are typically warm, trustworthy, and helpful. They value getting along with others. People who score lower may be more competitive, skeptical, or blunt in their communication. Openness to experience is about imagination, curiosity, and a willingness to try new things. People who score high in openness tend to enjoy art, unusual ideas, and exploring new experiences. They're creative, curious, and often open-minded. People who score lower in openness prefer routine, structure, and familiar ways of doing things. Extroversion is about how outgoing and energetic someone is in social situations. People high in extroversion tend to enjoy being around others, talk easily, and feel energized by social interaction. Those low in extraversion, often called introverts, may prefer quiet time alone and feel drained by too much social activity. Conscientiousness refers to how organized, dependable, and disciplined someone is. People high in conscientiousness are careful, responsible, and good at planning ahead. They tend to meet deadlines and follow through on commitments. Those low in conscientiousness may be more spontaneous or careless and might struggle with staying organized or completing tasks. Emotional stability, sometimes described in reverse as neuroticism, refers to how well someone handles stress and emotional ups and downs. People who are emotionally stable tend to stay calm, resilient, and relaxed even in difficult situations. Those lower in emotional stability are more likely to feel anxious, moody, or overwhelmed by stress. The big five personality traits are measured using surveys called personality inventories. These surveys ask people to rate how true certain statements are for them like I enjoy being around people or I get upset easily. Scientists look at the answers and use a method called factor analysis to find patterns. These patterns help show the five main parts of someone's personality. Okay, that's it for unit 4.5. At this point, you should have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. I've also added all the keywords for this unit into the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. Now, let's move on to unit 4.6 titled motivation. Unit 4.6 focuses on different theories that explain what motivates us to take action. The AP psychology curriculum asks us to explore the eight perspectives on the screen. Now, let's start from the top. Drive reduction theory explains motivation as the body's attempt to reduce an uncomfortable physiological sensation. Here's how it works. When we experience a physical need or discomfort, like hunger, thirst, or tiredness, we feel motivated or driven to take action to reduce the discomfort. For example, when you're hungry, you feel driven to find food. Once you eat, the drive is reduced, balance is restored, and you're no longer motivated. So according to this theory, motivation is strongest when we are trying to correct a physical imbalance. Next is arousal theory. This theory suggests that people are motivated not just by physical needs, but also by the desire to maintain an optimal level of mental alertness or stimulation. Some people prefer high levels of arousal and seek out new or intense experiences, while others prefer calm and quiet environments. When arousal is too low, people may feel bored and seek stimulation. When arousal is too high, they may try to calm themselves. Arousal theory is demonstrated by the Jüks Dodson law. This law explains the relationship between arousal and performance. It states that performance improves with arousal, but only up to a certain point. After that point, too much arousal causes performance to decline. The law finds that simple tasks are usually performed best under high arousal, while complex tasks require a lower level of arousal for best performance. Next, we have self-determination theory. The theory says that people are most motivated when three basic psychological needs are met. Autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy is the feeling that you are in control of your own choices. When people feel for forced to do something, motivation drops. But when they feel like they chose the task themselves, they're more engaged. Competence is the feeling of being good at something. People want to feel like they're making progress and mastering skills. Success builds confidence and motivation. Relatedness is the need to feel connected to others. When people feel supported, accepted, and valued by others, they're more motivated to keep going. The theory also introduces two additional influential frameworks for motivation. Intrinsic motivation and exttrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation comes from within. It refers to doing something because it's enjoyable, interesting, or personally meaningful. For example, someone might paint because they love the creative process, not because they are being rewarded or recognized. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the individual. It refers to doing something to earn a reward or avoid punishment. For example, someone might not like studying, but they do it to earn a five on their AP psychology exam. Or they don't like to work extra hours, but they want to receive a bonus. Incentive theory builds on self-determination theory's concept of extrinsic motivation. It focuses on how external rewards influence motivation. According to this theory, people are motivated to act in ways that will lead to rewards, such as money, praise, or recognition. Unlike drive reduction theory, incentive theory says that you don't have to experience physical need or discomfort to feel motivated. The mere presence of a desirable reward can create motivation. For example, a student might be motivated to participate more in class if the teacher gives extra credit for doing so. Next up, we'll look at the role of instincts in motivating action. Instincts are natural behaviors or reactions that animals are born with and do not have to learn. For example, birds know how to build nests without being taught. In other words, birds are inherently motivated to build a nest. These behaviors are present at birth and usually follow a predictable sequence. In humans, however, there is little evidence of strong instinctual behavior. Most human actions are instead shaped by learning, culture, and individual experience. Next up is Luen's motivational conflicts theory. According to this theory, motivation often comes from needing to resolve one of three types of conflict. Approach approach conflict, approach avoidance conflict, and avoidance avoidance conflict. Approach approach conflict occurs when a person must choose between two appealing options. For example, deciding between two favorite restaurants for dinner can be stressful because both choices are positive. People usually resolve this kind of conflict by choosing one or the other. And once the decision is made, they often feel satisfied. There's not a lot of regret here because both choices are good. Approach avoidance conflict happens when a single choice has both positive and negative aspects. For example, someone may want to audition for a school play because they love acting, but also fear public speaking. This creates mixed feelings and tension. To resolve this conflict, people often delay the decision or go back and forth. For example, that student who wants to audition for a play but fears embarrassment might try practicing with a friend first to reduce anxiety. Avoidance. Avoidance conflict is when someone must choose between two negative options. For example, deciding between studying for your psychology exam or your human geography exam may feel like choosing between two painful activities. For this type of conflict, people often delay action as long as possible, hoping one of the choices disappears or becomes more tolerable. For example, a student might avoid study for either subject until the night before the exam when the pressure pushes them to pick one. If you're following along using the study guide, pause the screen now so you can fill out the table about motivational conflicts theory with the correct answers. Next up, we have sensation seeking theory. This theory explains motivation in terms of a person's need for new and stimulating experiences. Here are four types of sensation seeking. Experience seeking, thrill or adventure seeking, disinhibition, and boredom susceptibility. Experience seeking involves a desire for new ideas, artistic experiences, and unfamiliar situations. People high in this trait enjoy traveling to new places or exploring different cultures. Thrill or adventure seeking is the pursuit of physical excitement. This includes activities like skydiving, mountain biking, or roller coaster riding. Disinhibition is the tendency to seek out experiences that break social rules or involve letting go of control. This might include partying, impulsive decision-making, or taking social risks. Boredom susceptibility is a dislike for routine and repetition. People high in this trait get restless quickly and may constantly look for something new to do. Lastly, we have to discuss the role of food for motivating action. Food demonstrates how motivation results from the interaction between physical processes and external factors. Let's look at the physical aspect first. Physically, hormones such as ghrein and leptin control our hunger. Grein signals the feeling of hunger and is released when the stomach is empty. Leptin signals fullness and is released when the body has had enough food. These hormones are regulated by the hypothalamus, which monitors the body's internal state through its communication with the pituitary gland. Now, let's consider external factors. People are more likely to eat when food is present, even if they aren't physically hungry. Meal timing, social settings, and cultural habits, like eating cake at a birthday party, can also motivate eating. These external factors demonstrate that eating also occurs due to habit and social expectations, not just need. Okay, so that's everything you need to know about theories of motivation. I've added all the keywords for all these theories into the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. At this point, you should have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 4.7 titled emotion. We're going to start this section with a definition of emotion, which we'll then have to break down in order to truly comprehend it. Here's the definition. Emotion is a psychological response to internal or external events that involves a combination of physiological and cognitive factors. Two important terms in that definition are cognitive and physiological. Cognitive experiences of emotion are about how we interpret or think about what's happening. This includes things like giving the emotion a name. For example, I feel angry. Thinking about what caused the emotion, for example, that person insulted me. and making judgments. For example, this is unfair. On the other hand, physiological experiences of emotion are the body's automatic responses like erasing heart, sweating, blushing, and muscle tension. These happen without thinking. They're controlled by your nervous system. It's clear that emotions involve both physiological and cognitive factors, but it's not entirely clear which comes first, the physiological or cognitive factor. Some early 20th century theories suggested that emotions happen in a sequence. First a physiological response, then a mental interpretation. Others argued that these two aspects happen at the same time, or that the cognitive label comes first and is necessary for the emotion to be fully experienced. One hypothesis that attempts to settle this debate is the facial feedback hypothesis. It proposes that our facial expressions can actually influence how we feel. For example, smiling might make someone feel happier even if the smile is forced. So, the facial feedback hypothesis supports the idea that physical reactions might occur before our cognitive awareness. However, research on this hypothesis has produced mixed results and there is no single explanation that fully accounts for how emotions are generated. One more recent idea in the field is the broaden and build theory of emotion which focuses on the effects of positive and negative emotions. Positive emotions are thought to expand our awareness and encourage creative thinking, problem solving, and new behaviors. In contrast, negative emotions tend to narrow our focus and limit our range of thoughts and actions, which can be helpful in short-term survival situations, but limiting in other contexts. Lastly, we need to look at how emotions are experienced across cultures. For this, we'll look at the universality of emotions and two concepts called display rules and elicitors. First, it appears there are some emotions that are universal across all cultures. These may include anger, disgust, sadness, happiness, surprise, and fear. This universality suggests a possible biological basis for some emotions in all humans. Still, the research is mixed, and not all studies agree. What is more clearly established is that display rules, the rules for how and when emotions can be shown and elicitors, the events that trigger emotions, vary across cultures. For example, one culture might encourage open expression of emotion, while another may expect emotional restraint. Display rules can also vary across genders, age groups, and socioeconomic status. For example, some cultures expect men to be less emotionally expressive than women, as shown by the phrase, "Men don't cry." So, you've now got all the key information you need for unit 4, but you'll need to have the ability to apply it in the exam. So, here's what you need to do next. Grab the study guide in the video description to reinforce your knowledge of the information. Become a premium member to get an edge on your studies. You'll get in-depth tutorials and video walkthroughs of common unit 4 questions you could face in the AP exam and advanced study guides to help you ace the exam. And once you feel confident about unit 4, we'll move on to unit 5. Okay, let's get started. Unit 5 of AP psychology is all about health psychology. Let's dive into unit 5.1, which starts with a definition of health psychology. Health psychology is a field of study that explores how our behaviors, emotions, and thoughts influence our overall health. It looks at how these factors can affect both our physical health, like how likely we are to catch a cold or how well we recover from illness, and our mental wellness, such as our stress levels and happiness. Now that we have a working definition, the rest of unit 5.1 is all about stress. Stress can increase our likelihood of developing disorders and disease. It is not only something that affects the mind. It has been linked to physiological issues such as hypertension, digestive issues, headaches, and immune suppression. This unit looks at four key concepts related to stress. Stressors, the general adaptation syndrome, the tendon befriend theory, and coping mechanisms. Stressors are any demands or challenges that require a person to adjust. We will look at two types of stressors. Ustress and distress. Ustress is a positive form of stress that helps a person stay motivated and alert. It often comes from exciting or meaningful situations like starting a new project, training for a sport, or performing on stage. Ustress can improve performance and promote growth. When a person feels capable of meeting the challenge, distress is a negative form of stress that feels overwhelming or unmanageable. It can lead to anxiety, frustration, or physical exhaustion. Distress tends to harm health over time, especially when it builds up without relief. Stressors can also be grouped based on their source and duration. Three we will look at are traumatic events, daily hassles, and adverse childhood experiences. Traumatic events are intense, often life-threatening experiences that cause strong emotional or physical reactions. Examples include natural disasters, car accidents, or violent attacks. These events may cause long-asting stress and can lead to conditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Daily hassles are small routine challenges that happen frequently. These include things like traffic, running late, schoolwork pressure, or minor disagreements. On their own, daily hassles might seem minor, but when they pile up, they can seriously affect mood, focus, and health. Adverse childhood experiences are deeply stressful events that happen during childhood. These may include abuse, neglect, or growing up in a home with addiction or domestic violence. Adverse childhood experiences are especially harmful because they can shape brain development and stress response systems, affecting mental and physical health throughout a person's life. Now, let's look at general adaptation syndrome. This is a model that explains how the body responds to stress over time. It describes a three-stage process that people go through when facing a prolonged stressor. The three stages we will look at are the alarm stage, the resistance stage, and the exhaustion stage. The alarm stage is the body's immediate reaction to a stressor. This is when the fight, flight, or freeze response is activated. The body releases stress hormones like adrenaline to prepare for quick action. Heart rate increases, breathing speeds up, and muscles tense. The resistance stage occurs if the stress continues beyond the initial shock. During this phase, the body tries to adapt and maintain balance while staying alert. Energy is still being used to cope with the stress, but not as intensely as during the alarm stage. The exhaustion stage happens when the stress lasts too long or when the body's resources are used up. At this point, the body can no longer maintain its response and physical or mental breakdowns may occur. This is the stage when a person is most vulnerable to illness or burnout. If you're following along using the study guide, pause the screen now to check that you've filled out the general adaptation syndrome table correctly. Third, we have tendon befriend theory. This theory describes an alternative response to stress. Instead of fighting or fleeing, some people respond by caring for others and seeking social support. This coping pattern is called tending and befriending, and it's more commonly seen in women. It suggests that reaching out and forming connections may be an instinctive way to reduce stress and protect well-being both for the individual and for those they care for. Lastly, we have strategies for coping with stress. Psychologists group coping methods into two broad types. problem focused coping and emotion focused coping. Problem focused coping means viewing the stress as a challenge to be solved. A person using this strategy takes steps to remove or reduce the source of stress. For example, someone who's stressed about an upcoming test might cope by creating a study plan or asking a teacher for help. This type of coping works best when the person has some control over the situation. Emotion focused coping means trying to manage how you feel in response to stress rather than trying to change the situation itself. People might use relaxation techniques like deep breathing, meditation, or calming music. Others might talk to friends, journal, or take medication prescribed for anxiety. This type of coping is helpful when the situation can't be changed, like dealing with a loss or managing ongoing illness. Okay, that's it for unit 5.1. Here's a list of key terms from this section. I've added them all to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. At this point, you should also have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 5.2. Unit 5.2 focuses on positive psychology, which is the scientific study of what helps individuals and communities thrive. Rather than focusing on illness or dysfunction, positive psychology explores how people build well-being, resilience, and fulfillment even during or after difficult experiences. Instead of asking what's wrong with people, positive psychology asks what makes life worth living. AP psychology requires that you know about three concepts in positive psychology. The value of expressing gratitude, signature strengths and virtues in post-traumatic growth. Expressing gratitude is one of the most studied practices in positive psychology. Gratitude involves recognizing and appreciating the good in one's life. Research shows that people who regularly express gratitude experience higher levels of subjective well-being, including better mood, more optimism, and greater life satisfaction. Keeping a gratitude journal or saying thank you to others are simple ways that have been shown to increase happiness. Now let's look at positive psychologyy's perspective on strengths and virtues. According to positive psychology, signature strengths are personal qualities that reflect a person's best traits like creativity, honesty, kindness, or perseverance. When people identify and use these strengths in daily life, they tend to experience more happiness, motivation, and confidence. Research in positive psychology has grouped these strengths into six broad categories of human virtue. The six categories we will look at are wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Wisdom includes traits like curiosity, love of learning, and good judgment. Courage includes bravery, persistence, and integrity. Humanity includes kindness, empathy, and social intelligence. Justice includes fairness, leadership, and teamwork. Temperance includes self-control, humility, and prudence. Transcendence includes gratitude, appreciation of beauty, hope, and spirituality. Using your signature strengths, especially when they align with these six virtues, creates positive objective experiences like increased motivation, deeper relationships, and stronger engagement with life. Now, let's look at post-traumatic growth. This is a form of positive change that can occur after a person goes through a deeply challenging or traumatic event. While trauma can cause distress and suffering, some people report growing stronger afterward in certain areas of life. They may feel a deeper appreciation for life, stronger relationships, or renewed sense of purpose. Post-traumatic growth is not simply bouncing back. It is about moving forward with new insight or strength gained through adversity. Okay, that's it for positive psychology. Here's the list of key terms from this section. I've added them all to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. At this point, you should also have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 5.3. Unit 5.3 explains how psychologists identify and classify psychological disorders. Psychological disorders are identified using several key factors. These include the level of dysfunction, perception of stress, and deviation from social norms. Level of dysfunction refers to how much a person's behavior or thoughts interfere with daily life. Perception of distress refers to how much suffering the person reports. Deviation from social norms refers to behavior that differs significantly from what is considered typical or acceptable in a given culture. No single factor is enough by itself. Psychologists look for patterns across these areas. Diagnosing psychological disorders can have both helpful and harmful effects. A diagnosis can give people access to treatment, support, and understanding, but it can also lead to negative consequences such as stigma, discrimination, and mislabeling. Cultural and social factors like racism, sexism, agism, and societal norms can influence how a diagnosis is received or applied. This is why mental health professionals are trained to consider individual identity and context in the diagnostic process. Classifying psychological disorders requires formal systems and clinical expertise. Psychologists use evidence-based diagnostic tools and follow professional guidelines to make accurate diagnosis. Two major classification systems are widely used. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is produced by the American Psychiatric Association and is commonly used in the United States. The International Classification of Mental Disorders is produced by the World Health Organization and is used internationally. These manuals are regularly updated to reflect new research and changes in clinical practice. Only professionals with specialized training are qualified to make official diagnoses using these tools. Okay. The rest of unit 5.3 looks at nine different approaches to diagnosing and treating clients. You might recognize many of these approaches already. Earlier units in AP psychology have covered many of these perspectives, but for this unit, it's time to apply each of these perspectives to see how they're used for mental health diagnosis and treatment. Keep in mind that most psychologists use an eclectic approach when working with clients. This means they draw on more than one of the psychological perspectives on the screen to understand and treat any one mental disorder. Psychologists acknowledge that no single theory explains everything and that different methods may be more helpful depending on the person and the situation. Let's look at what you need to know about each perspective in order. First, we have the behavioral perspective. This perspective explains psychological disorders using the concepts of classical and operant conditioning which we discussed in unit 3.7 and 3.8. In particular, it focuses on maladaptive learned associations which is a situation where a person has learned unhelpful associations such as fear of elevators or avoidance of grocery stores. For example, if someone has a panic attack in a grocery store, their brain might start to think that grocery stores are dangerous. So they start avoiding grocery stores. In this example, we've used behaviorism to explain how someone has developed a panic disorder. Next is the psychonamic perspective. This perspective focuses on unconscious thoughts and early life experiences as causes of mental disorders. This approach suggests that unresolved conflicts from childhood may lead to symptoms later in life. For example, someone who represses anger from past relationships may develop anxiety or depression without realizing why. Next is the humanistic perspective. This perspective explains mental disorders in terms of a lack of social support or an inability to fulfill your potential. This approach emphasizes the importance of feeling accepted, understood, and capable of personal growth. When people are denied these needs, they may develop feelings of worthlessness or hopelessness. Next is the cognitive perspective. This perspective views mental disorders as the result of maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, or attitudes. This includes negative thinking patterns such as assuming the worst or believing you are powerless. Cognitive therapy aims to help people recognize and change these unhelpful thought patterns. Next is the evolutionary perspective. This perspective looks at psychological disorders as traits or behaviors that may have once helped humans survive or reproduce, but no longer serve those purposes. For example, extreme phobias may have once helped early humans avoid danger, but in modern life, they can interfere with basic functioning. Next is the socioultural perspective. This perspective focuses on how social and cultural dynamics can lead to mental health disorders. This includes issues like poverty, discrimination, and cultural practices that may lead to distress. Next is the biological perspective. This perspective looks at genetic and physiological factors as causes of mental disorders. This includes brain structure, neurotransmitter imbalances, and inherited traits. Biological treatments may include medication or medical procedures to restore balance in the brain. Next is the biocschosocial model. This model assumes that mental health conditions result from a combination of biological, psychological, and social factors. For example, someone may be born with a genetic risk for depression, develop low self-esteem, and live in a stressful environment. All three layers interact to shape mental health. Finally, we have the diiathesis stress model. This model suggests that mental disorders develop when a person with a genetic or biological vulnerability called a diiathesis experiences a stressful life event. Neither the vulnerability nor the stress alone may cause the disorder, but the combination can trigger it. For example, someone with a family history of anxiety may develop symptoms after losing a job or experiencing trauma. Okay, that's it for unit 5.3. Here's the list of key terms from this section. I've added them all to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. At this point, you should also have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 5.4. Unit 5.4 looks at 10 categories of psychological disorders. These are listed on the screen. Now, for each category, AP psychology requires knowledge of the defining symptoms, examples of disorders within the category, and possible causes based on current research. Let's start with neurodedevelopmental disorders. These are conditions that begin during the developmental period, usually in childhood. These disorders are diagnosed based on whether a child's behavior, communication, or learning ability fits what's considered typical for their age and maturity level. Two disorders included in this category are attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. People with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder may have trouble paying attention, staying still, or controlling impulses. People with autism spectrum disorder may struggle with communication, social interaction, or show repetitive behaviors. Possible causes of neurodedevelopmental disorders can include environmental, physiological, or genetic factors. Some cases may be linked to prenatal exposures, differences in brain development or inherited traits. Next are schizophrenic spectrum disorders. An individual with a schizophrenic spectrum disorder may have symptoms that are acute, meaning they appear suddenly and intensely, or chronic, meaning they develop gradually over time. Their symptoms may also be positive or negative. This doesn't refer to good versus bad. Rather, positive symptoms are symptoms that involve additional behaviors that are not normally present. This might refer to additional movements, thoughts, or behaviors. Negative symptoms involve the absence of behaviors that are normally present. Examples include flat affect, which refers to showing little or no emotional expression, and catatonic stuper, which refers to remaining motionless for long periods. You need to be able to name and understand each of the four schizophrenic spectrum disorders listed on screen now. So let's look at them one at a time. Starting with delusions. Delusions are false beliefs that a person holds despite strong evidence against them. These are considered positive symptoms because they add something to a person's mental experience. Common delusions include delusions of persecution, which involve believing others are out to harm you, and delusions of grandeur, which involve believing you have exceptional abilities or fame. Hallucinations are false perceptions that seem real but are not based in the external world. These are also positive symptoms and can affect any of the senses, though auditory hallucinations such as hearing voices are the most common. Disorganized thinking or speech involves a breakdown in logical thought. A person may speak in confusing or nonsensical ways such as creating a word salad, a jumble of unrelated or random words. This is considered a positive symptom. Disorganized motor behavior refers to unusual or erratic physical movement. This may manifest as positive symptoms which would involve excitable movements or negative symptoms which would involve extreme stillness known as stuper. Possible causes of schizophrenia appear to involve biological or genetic factors. Research points to neurotransmitter imbalances, especially dopamine, structural brain differences, and prenatal viral exposure as potential contributors. Okay, that's it for schizophrenic spectrum disorders. Next up is depressive disorders. Depressive disorders are marked by long lasting periods of low mood and changes in thinking and physical functioning. A person may feel sad, empty, or irritable and may have trouble sleeping, eating, or focusing. These symptoms interfere with daily life and may persist for weeks or even years. Two disorders in this category are major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder. Major depressive disorder involves intense depressive episodes. Persistent depressive disorder is a chronic form with less severe but longerlasting symptoms. Possible causes of depressive disorders include biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, and cognitive factors. For example, a person might inherit a tendency toward low mood, experience ongoing social stress, or hold persistent negative beliefs about themselves. Next is bipolar disorders. These involve shifts between periods of depression and mania. Mania is a state of unusually high energy, impulsive behavior, and elevated or irritable mood. A person may talk quickly, take risky actions, or feel unstoppable. These manic episodes alternate with depressive episodes which resemble those seen in depressive disorders. Two disorders in this category are bipolar one disorder and bipolar 2 disorder. Bipolar one involves at least one full manic episode while bipolar 2 involves at least one hypomomanic episode which is a milder form of mania along with depressive episodes. Possible causes of bipolar disorders include biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, and cognitive sources. Like depressive disorders, bipolar conditions are influenced by many interacting factors including brain chemistry, life experiences, and inherited traits. The next category is anxiety disorders. These are marked by excessive fear or anxiety, often accompanied by behavioral changes such as avoidance or hypervigilance. These feelings are intense, persistent and interfere with daily life. We will look at five anxiety disorders. Specific phobia, agrophobia, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder. Specific phobia involves an intense fear of a particular object or situation that poses little or no actual danger. Common examples include acrophobia, fear of heights, and arachnophobia, fear of spiders. The fear is strong enough to interfere with everyday activities. Agrophobia is the fear of being in situations where escape might be difficult or where help might not be available. This includes places like public transportation, open spaces, crowded areas, or being alone outside the home. The fear is often tied to feelings of being trapped or helpless. Panic disorder involves unexpected and repeated panic attacks which are sudden episodes of intense fear along with physical and emotional symptoms. These attacks may include rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, dizziness, and a sense of impending doom. Panic disorder can take different forms across cultures. For example, the AP psychology curriculum specifically mentions a talk denervio, a type of panic attack experienced by people of Caribbean or Iberian descent, which involves its own specific symptoms such as uncontrollable screaming, shouting, or crying. Social anxiety disorder is the fear of being judged, embarrassed, or rejected in social situations. It may cause people to avoid speaking, eating, or interacting in public. A related culture specific example is Taiin Kyusho seen mainly in Japanese culture in which individuals fear that their appearance or behavior will offend or upset others. Generalized anxiety disorder is a condition in which a person experiences persistent and excessive worry about many different areas of life. This worry is difficult to control and is often accompanied by restlessness, fatigue, and trouble concentrating. Possible causes of anxiety disorders include learned associations between specific stimuli and fear responses, maladaptive thinking patterns, and biological or genetic factors. Next is obsessivempulsive and related disorders. This category of disorders involve repetitive thoughts or behaviors that interfere with a person's daily functioning. Two examples are obsessivecompulsive disorder and hoarding disorder. In obsessivempulsive disorder, the person experiences obsessions which are intrusive, unwanted thoughts and compulsions which are repetitive behaviors meant to reduce the anxiety caused by the obsessions. In hoarding disorder, the individual has persistent difficulty discarding possessions regardless of their actual value, often leading to clutter and distress. Possible causes of obsessive compulsive and related disorders involve learned associations, distorted thinking patterns, and biological or genetic factors. Next is dissociative disorders. Dissociative disorders are characterized by a disruption or disconnection in a person's memory, identity, consciousness, or sense of self. These disorders often develop after trauma or overwhelming stress. The disorders you need to know for this course are dissociative amnesia and dissociative identity disorder. In dissociative amnesia, a person loses memory of important personal information, often related to a traumatic or stressful event. In some cases, this condition may include fugue, which involves unexpected travel or wandering combined with memory loss about one's identity. In dissociative identity disorder, a person experiences two or more distinct identities or personality states, often as a response to severe trauma. Possible causes of dissociative disorders center on traumatic experiences and psychological stress. Next is trauma and stressor related disorders. These disorders arise after a person has been exposed to a highly stressful or traumatic event such as a natural disaster, serious car accident, physical assault, or combat exposure. The key disorder in this category is post-traumatic stress disorder, which may include symptoms such as hypervigilance, flashbacks, severe anxiety, emotional detachment, insomnia, and irritability or hostility. The next category is feeding and eating disorders. These disorders are marked by harmful changes in eating behavior that damage a person's health or psychological well-being. Two disorders in this category are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. In anorexia nervosa, a person restricts food intake and has an intense fear of gaining weight, often leading to dangerously low body weight. In bulimia nervosa, a person engages in cycles of binge eating followed by behaviors like vomiting or excessive exercise to avoid weight gain. Possible causes of feeding and eating disorders may include biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral or cognitive factors. Media pressure, body image expectations, and family dynamics may all play a role. The final category is personality disorders. These are long- lasting patterns of behavior and inner experience that deviate from cultural expectations are rigid and inflexible and begin by adolescence or early adulthood. These patterns can cause serious difficulties in relationships, work, and self-image. Personality disorders are grouped into three clusters called cluster A, cluster B, and cluster C. Cluster A is known as the odd or eccentric cluster. It includes paranoid, schizoid and schizotypal personality disorders. People in this cluster may appear distant, suspicious or disconnected from others. Cluster B is the dramatic, emotional or erratic cluster. It includes antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders. These disorders often involve intense emotions, impulsive behavior, or unstable relationships. Cluster C is the anxious or fearful cluster. It includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive compulsive personality disorders. These disorders are marked by chronic worry, fear of rejection, or a need for control. Possible causes of personality disorders include biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive influences. Okay, that's it for unit 5.4. Here's the list of key terms from this section. I've added them all to the flashcard set that you can grab through the link in the description. At this point, you should also have completed the study guide for this section. Check the answer key before moving on. Now, let's move on to unit 5.5. Unit 5.5 explains how psychological disorders are treated using psychotherapy, which is the use of psychological techniques to help individuals improve mental health and well-being. The section can be roughly understood as having two halves. In the first half, we'll talk about the effectiveness of psychotherapy, treatment settings, and ethical principles for psychotherrapeutic treatment. In the second half, we'll cover the different types of psychotherrapeutic treatment. Let's start with the discussion of the effectiveness of psychotherapy. Here, we'll cover the research basis, evidence-based interventions, and the concept of the therapeutic alliance. Many researchers have conducted metaanalyses or large-scale reviews of data from multiple studies and have found that psychotherapies are generally effective in treating a wide range of disorders. Today, many psychologists use evidence-based interventions, meaning that treatment plans are based on research showing what works best for specific disorders. In order for therapy to be successful, therapists must build a therapeutic alliance, a trusting, respectful, and collaborative relationship with the client. Therapists must also practice cultural humility, meaning they stay open to the client's cultural background and avoid making assumptions based on their own perspective. Next, you need to understand how treatment settings have changed over time. The two trends are deinstitutionalization and decentralization. Deinstitutionalization refers to the fact that large numbers of people were released from psychiatric hospitals and asylums in the late 20th century. Today, psychologists and psychiatrists often use a decentralized approach to care, combining medication with therapy in outpatient settings like clinics, private practices, and community centers. Next up, we need to cover the ethical principles for conducting psychological treatments. It is highly likely you will need to show understanding of these in your exam. So, make sure you take notes. Essentially, psychologists who provide therapy must follow ethical principles set by professional organizations. According to the American Psychological Association, these principles include non-maleficence, fidelity, integrity, and respect for people's rights and dignity. Non-maleficence means that psychologists must avoid actions that could harm the client. This includes physical, emotional, and psychological harm, whether intentional or unintentional. Fidelity refers to maintaining trust between the therapist and client. Therapists are expected to be dependable, reliable, and committed to the professional relationship. Integrity means being honest, accurate, and truthful in communication and behavior. Therapists must not mislead clients or exaggerate their skills or credentials. Respect for people's rights and dignity means recognizing each person's autonomy and their privacy and cultural background. Therapists must treat all clients with fairness and uphold their right to make decisions about their own treatment. Okay. For the rest of unit 5.5, we'll dive into different types of treatment. Just like our discussion of diagnosis earlier in this unit, we'll delve into the common approaches which are listed on the screen now, but this time the focus will be on treatment rather than diagnosis. Let's start with psychonamic therapy. Psychonamic therapies are based on the idea that unconscious thoughts and early life experiences shape current behavior and emotional struggles. The goal is to help clients gain insight into unresolved conflicts and inner motivations. We will look at two common techniques used in psychonamic therapy. Free association and dream interpretation. Free association involves encouraging the client to speak freely without censorship. This helps bring unconscious thoughts to the surface. Dream interpretation is used to uncover symbolic meanings within a client's dreams. Okay, let's move on to cognitive therapies. Cognitive therapies focus on identifying and changing unhelpful thought patterns that contribute to emotional distress. The goal is to help clients think more clearly and constructively. We will look at three core elements of cognitive therapy. Cognitive restructuring, fear hierarchies, and the cognitive triad. Cognitive restructuring involves teaching clients to recognize distorted or irrational thoughts and replace them with more balanced and realistic ones. This process helps reduce emotional suffering by changing how clients interpret situations. Fear hierarchies are used to treat anxiety by gradually exposing clients to feared situations in a step-by-step way. Clients begin with mildly distressing situations and work up to more difficult ones, gaining confidence at each stage. The cognitive triad refers to a pattern of negative thinking about oneself, the world, and the future. In the self section, the client believes they are inadequate, unlovable, or worthless. They may think things like, "I'm a failure," or, "There's something wrong with me." In the world section, the client sees the world as unfair, overwhelming, or full of obstacles. In the future section, the client expects failure, or feels hopeless. They may think things will never get better or there's no point in trying. In cognitive therapy, the goal is to help people become aware of these patterns and learn to challenge and change them. By identifying and questioning these negative thoughts, people can begin to develop more balanced and realistic ways of thinking, which often leads to feeling better emotionally. Next up is applied behavior analysis. Applied behavior analysis is a therapeutic approach based on principles of conditioning. It focuses on changing behavior through reinforcement, punishment, and other learning based strategies. We will look at four applications of applied behavior analysis. Exposure therapies, aversion therapies, token economies, and BOF feedback. Exposure therapies help clients gradually face their fears in a controlled and safe way. A common example is systematic desensitization where the person is slowly exposed to a feared situation while practicing relaxation strategies. Aversion therapies pair an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant experience to reduce the behavior. For example, a bitter substance might be applied to the fingernails to reduce nailbiting. Token economies use rewards to encourage desired behaviors. Clients earn tokens for positive behaviors which they can later exchange for meaningful rewards or privileges. BOF feedback teaches clients to control physical processes that are usually automatic such as heart rate or muscle tension. This technique helps people manage symptoms related to anxiety or depression by using feedback from sensors to improve regulation of the body's stress response systems. Next is cognitive behavioral therapy. This type of therapy combines strategies from both cognitive and behavioral approaches. The goal is to help clients change both their thoughts and their actions. Two examples of cognitive behavioral therapy are dialectical behavior therapy and rational emotive behavior therapy. Dialectical behavior therapy helps clients manage intense emotions by teaching skills like mindfulness, distress tolerance, and emotional regulation. It is especially useful for people who struggle with self harm, mood swings, or unstable relationships. Rational emotive behavior therapy focuses on identifying and challenging irrational beliefs that lead to negative emotions. The goal is to replace those beliefs with more logical, helpful ways of thinking. Clients are then encouraged to practice new behaviors based on their new rational beliefs. Next is humanistic therapy. This therapy is grounded in the belief that people are inherently good and capable of personal growth. It emphasizes the client's subjective experience and focuses on helping them reach their full potential. We will look at two key components of humanistic therapy. Active listening and unconditional positive regard. Active listening involves the therapist fully concentrating on what the client is saying and reflecting it back without judgment. This helps the client feel heard and encourages deeper self-exloration. Unconditional positive regard means that the therapist accepts the client without conditions or judgment. This creates a safe space where the client can be honest and begin to develop self-acceptance. Next, we have group therapy. This involves treating multiple clients together in a shared setting. It allows participants to learn from each other, practice social skills, and feel less alone in their struggles. In contrast, individual therapy is a one-on-one format that allows for more personalized attention. Each format has unique strengths and may be used depending on the goals of treatment. Next is hypnosis. Hypnosis is a therapeutic technique that can be effective in reducing pain and anxiety. However, research does not support using hypnosis to recover accurate memories or to revisit earlier stages of development. Therapists use hypnosis with caution, focusing on present- moment experiences rather than memory retrieval. People can also be treated using psychoactive medications. These are substances that alter brain function to reduce symptoms of psychological disorders. They work by interacting with neurotransmitters in the brain. We will look at four major types of psychoactive medications. anti-dopressants, anti-anxiety medications, lithium, and anti-csychotic medications. Anti-depressants are used to treat mood disorders such as depression. Anti-anxiety medications are prescribed to reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic. Lithium is most commonly used to treat bipolar disorder. It helps stabilize mood swings by affecting neurotransmitter activity and reducing the intensity of manic and depressive episodes. Antiscychotic medications are used to treat conditions such as schizophrenia. They target neurotransmitters like dopamine to reduce symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. Some medications can have side effects such as tardive diskynesia, a movement disorder caused by disruptions in dopamine regulation. Lastly, we have surgical and invasive methods. These include psychosurgery, transcranial magnetic stimulation and electrocomvulsive therapy. Psychosurgery involves lesioning small parts of the brain. One historical form of psychosurgery is the labbotomy which was widely used in the mid 20th century but is now almost never performed due to ethical concerns and serious side effects. Transcranial magnetic stimulation uses magnetic fields to stimulate areas of the brain involved in mood regulation. Electroconvulsive therapy uses controlled electrical currents to treat severe depression or other conditions when other treatments have not worked. Okay, that brings us to the end of unit 5. Congratulations. You've now reviewed the entire AP psychology curriculum, but you'll need to have the ability to apply it in the exam. So, here's what you need to do next. Grab the study guide in the video description to reinforce your knowledge of the information and become a premium member to get an edge on your studies. You'll get in-depth tutorials and video walkthroughs of common unit 4 questions you could face in the AP exam and advanced study guides to help you ace the exam. Thanks for reviewing the AP psychology course with me and best of luck with your exam.