Celts/Gauls: Indigenous tribes of Western Europe, known for their warrior culture and resistance to Roman conquest; Gauls were Celtic tribes in modern-day France
Julius Caesar: Roman general who conquered Gaul (58-50 BCE) and played a key role in the fall of the Roman Republic.
West Franconia: The western part of the former Carolingian Empire, which became the foundation for medieval France.
Angles & the Saxons: Germanic tribes that migrated to Britain in the 5th century, forming the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.
* Alfred the Great: King of Wessex (871–899), successfully defended England against Viking invasions and promoted learning.
William the Conqueror: Duke of Normandy who won the Battle of Hastings (1066), becoming the first Norman King of England.
English language: Developed from Anglo-Saxon (Old English), heavily influenced by Latin, Norse, and Norman French.
The Rus: Early Slavic people, influenced by Norse Vikings, who founded Kievan Rus (precursor to Russia).
Oleg the Viking: Varangian ruler who established Kiev as a powerful trade center (9th century).
The HRE (Holy Roman Empire): Loose confederation of Germanic and Central European states (962–1806), first ruled by Otto I.
Cordoba/Moors: Cordoba was a major Islamic center in Spain under the Moors, known for its cultural and scientific achievements.
Ferdinand & Isabella: Catholic monarchs who united Spain, completed the Reconquista (1492), and funded Columbus’s voyage.
Mehmed II: Ottoman sultan who conquered Constantinople (1453), ending the Byzantine Empire.
Suleiman the Magnificent: Expanded the Ottoman Empire to its height in the 16th century, known for military and legal reforms.
Battle of Mohacs (1526): Ottoman victory over Hungary, leading to Ottoman dominance in Central Europe.
The Janissaries: Elite Ottoman soldiers, originally Christian boys taken through the devshirme system and trained as warriors.
Roxelana: Wife of Suleiman the Magnificent, influential in Ottoman politics.
Battle of Lepanto (1571): Naval battle where the Holy League defeated the Ottoman fleet, halting their expansion in the Mediterranean.
The Renaissance: Cultural rebirth (14th–17th centuries) that revived classical learning, art, and science.
Leonardo da Vinci: Renaissance artist, scientist, and inventor; painted the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper.
Francis Bacon: Philosopher who promoted the scientific method.
Humanism: Intellectual movement focusing on classical texts, human potential, and individualism.
Scholasticism: Medieval system of learning that sought to reconcile faith with reason.
Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer who, in 1492, reached the Americas under Spanish sponsorship.
The Reformation: 16th-century religious movement that led to the creation of Protestant churches.
Martin Luther: German monk who initiated the Reformation by posting his 95 Theses (1517), criticizing the Catholic Church.
John Calvin: Protestant reformer who emphasized predestination; wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion.
The English Reformation: Separation of the Church of England from the Catholic Church under King Henry VIII (1534).
Counter-Reformation: Catholic response to the Reformation, reaffirming doctrines and reforming church abuses.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572): Mass killing of Huguenots (French Protestants) by Catholics.
Bloody Mary (Mary I): English queen (1553–1558) who persecuted Protestants in an attempt to restore Catholicism.
Elizabeth I: Protestant queen (1558–1603) who established England as a major naval power.
The Spanish Armada (1588): Failed Spanish invasion of England, marking the rise of England as a global power.
Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648): Devastating conflict in the HRE between Catholics and Protestants, ended by the Peace of Westphalia.
Gustavus Adolphus: Swedish king who modernized warfare and supported Protestants in the Thirty Years’ War.
Mandate of Heaven/Middle Kingdom: Chinese concept that emperors ruled by divine right but could be overthrown if they lost virtue.
Confucianism: Chinese philosophy emphasizing hierarchy, duty, and moral virtue.
Beijing and the Forbidden City: Ming-era imperial palace in Beijing, symbolizing centralized power.
Yongle: Ming emperor who moved the capital to Beijing and expanded naval power.
Zheng He: Chinese admiral who led maritime expeditions across the Indian Ocean (15th century).
Manchus: Ethnic group from Manchuria who founded the Qing Dynasty (1644).
Kangxi: Qing emperor known for stability, territorial expansion, and cultural flourishing.
Shogun: Military ruler of Japan, holding real power over the emperor.
Daimyo: Feudal lords controlling regional territories.
Samurai: Warrior class serving the daimyo.
Seppuku: Ritual suicide practiced by samurai to restore honor.
Toyotomi Hideyoshi: Unifier of Japan, led campaigns in Korea.
The Separation Edict: Law limiting interaction between different social classes in Japan.
The Sword Hunt: Policy disarming peasants to ensure samurai dominance.
Tokugawa Ieyasu: Founder of the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), which established long-term stability.
Battle of Sekigahara (1600): Decisive battle that allowed Tokugawa Ieyasu to unify Japan.
Closed Country Edict (1635): Policy isolating Japan from foreign influence.
Alternate Attendance System: Policy requiring daimyo to spend time in Edo (Tokyo) to ensure loyalty.
Ronin: Masterless samurai, often mercenaries or outcasts.