Overview
This lecture explores the origins, rise, and fall of the Kelts (Celts), examining their culture, trading networks, society, religious beliefs, artistry, and eventual decline during the Iron Age in Europe.
Origins and Early Culture
- The term “Kelts” describes various ancient European tribes sharing material culture and artistic style.
- Early Kelts originated in Central Europe, notably in Hallstatt, Austria, thriving on salt mining from 800 BC.
- Hallstatt culture expanded via trade routes like the Amber Road, spreading Celtic culture across Europe and into Asia.
- Wealth from salt trade led to stratified society with wealthy elites and working classes.
Society, Trade, and Expansion
- Salt trade facilitated long-distance networks, shaping an interconnected European market.
- Marriages and alliances, often through trade links, fostered cultural unity.
- Rich burials and preserved artifacts (textiles, tools, surgical instruments) reveal social structure and advanced craftsmanship.
Spiritual and Ritual Life
- Keltic religion was polytheistic, with gods of nature, fertility, and healing.
- Ritual sites, often near trade routes, served as shrines and burial places for the elite.
- Offerings included valuable objects; human sacrifice is now debated and mostly discredited.
Golden Age and Warrior Culture
- Around 450 BC, climate crisis and food shortages shifted power from traders to warrior chieftains.
- Kelts became famed for their martial prowess, mastering ironworking for deadly weapons.
- Artistry appeared in weapons and luxury goods, influencing later European art styles.
- The Laten period marks the height of their artistic and military culture.
Migrations, Warfare, and Mercenaries
- Climate and hunger drove migrations; Kelts sacked Rome in 390 BC.
- Intertribal warfare and slave trade became significant economic factors.
- Celtic mercenaries fought throughout Europe, influencing and adopting foreign technologies and ideas.
- Women could attain high status and may have fought or traveled as part of warrior elites.
Settlements and Proto-States
- Returning warriors established large open trading centers with shared architecture and currency.
- Prosperity led to the creation of a networked proto-state along the Amber Road.
- Over time, external threats (e.g., Germanic tribes) led to the construction of fortified hilltop towns (opida).
Decline and Roman Conquest
- Fortified opida replaced open towns but ultimately weakened Keltic society.
- Loss of trade with Rome and Roman military campaigns caused economic and social collapse.
- Significant oppida, like Manching and Bratislava, adopted Roman ways before abandonment.
- By the 1st century BC, Keltic culture faded as the region became Romanized.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Hallstatt Culture — Early Iron Age Celtic society centered in Austria (c. 800–450 BC).
- Amber Road — Major trade route linking the Baltic and Mediterranean seas.
- Opida — Large fortified Celtic settlements built on hilltops in the late Iron Age.
- Laten Period — Later phase of Celtic culture (c. 450–1 BC), characterized by warrior elites and advanced artistry.
- Trepanation — Ancient surgical procedure involving drilling the skull, practiced by the Kelts.
- Torque — Ornate neck ring symbolizing high status in Keltic society.
- Stater — Coin used in ancient Celtic and neighboring societies.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review major Celtic archaeological sites: Hallstatt, Dunberg, Glauberg, Manching, Bratislava.
- Study the transition from Hallstatt to Laten cultures and its significance.
- Understand the role of trade routes (Amber Road) in Celtic expansion.
- Prepare for further discussion on the impact of Roman conquest on Celtic society.