Utilitarianism, Act and Rule

Introduction

• Utilitarianism: Moral theory where the rightness or wrongness of actions is determined by their consequences.
• Focuses on increasing good (pleasure, happiness) and decreasing bad (pain, unhappiness).
• Distinction between:
  • Act utilitarianism: Focuses on individual actions.
  • Rule utilitarianism: Focuses on types of actions.

Historical Context

• Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill: Key figures in utilitarian thought.
• Major impact on moral theory and social policy.
• Ongoing debate over the correct form of utilitarianism.

Key Concepts

What is Good?

• Hedonism: Pleasure is the only intrinsic good.
• Other theories propose multiple intrinsic goods (e.g., knowledge, honesty).

Whose Well-being?

• Individual Self-interest: Decision-making focused on personal utility.
• Groups: Focus on the well-being of groups, e.g., parties, communities.
• Everyone Affected: Equal consideration for all individuals' interests.

Actual vs. Foreseeable Consequences

• Debate on whether moral judgments should be based on actual outcomes or those that can be predicted.
• Example: Unintended negative outcomes like saving Hitler from drowning.

Differences Between Act and Rule Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism

• Evaluates each action individually to maximize utility.
• Advantages:
  • Direct approach to maximizing utility.
  • Provides objective answers relating to moral questions.
• Criticisms:
  • Permits morally wrong actions if they increase utility (e.g., punishing an innocent person).
  • Undermines trust and is overly demanding.

Rule Utilitarianism

• Evaluates actions based on adherence to rules that maximize utility.
• Advantages:
  • Prevents negative consequences like lost trust.
  • Allows for predictable and consistent moral rules.
• Criticisms:
  • Rule worship: Following rules even when better options exist.
  • May collapse into act utilitarianism under scrutiny.

Conclusion

• Debate centers on how best to create rules that maximize well-being and whether individual actions or rules offer the best moral guide.
• Both perspectives agree that the impact on well-being determines the morality of actions.

References and Further Reading

• Classic works by Bentham and Mill.
• Recent works by thinkers like Peter Singer and Derek Parfit.
• Critiques by Judith Jarvis Thomson and Bernard Williams.

Contact Information

• Stephen Nathanson, Northeastern University, USA.