Overview
This lecture covers the rise and significance of nomadic empires in Eurasia between the 11th and 15th centuries, focusing on the Mongol Empire and its impact on cross-cultural exchange, conquest, and governance.
Nomadic Societies of Eurasia
- Nomadic peoples, especially Turks and Mongols, thrived on the Central Asian steppes, relying on pastoralism and herding animals.
- Nomadic society consisted mainly of elites/nobles and commoners, with decisions made at the tribal level except during warfare.
- Women in nomadic societies had higher status than in contemporary agricultural societies, often trained as archers and riders.
- Religion was originally animistic and shamanistic; many later converted to Islam, Christianity, or Buddhism.
- Nomads used horses for mobility, making them formidable warriors and crucial trade intermediaries.
Rise of Turkish Empires
- Seljuk Turks migrated into Persia and served in the Abbasid military, eventually overshadowing the Abbasid caliphs.
- In 1055, Tughril Beg became sultan, taking Baghdad and later, Syria and Palestine.
- The Seljuk victory at Manzikert in 1071 weakened the Byzantine Empire.
- The Ghaznavids (from Afghanistan) established the Sultanate of Delhi in northern India, spreading Islam through conquest and often persecuting Hindus and Buddhists.
The Mongol Empire: Formation and Conquests
- The Mongol Empire, united by Genghis Khan, became the largest contiguous land empire in world history.
- Mongol military success relied on cavalry, superior tactics, strict discipline, and organization beyond tribal lines.
- Genghis Khan emphasized loyalty and talent over kinship, breaking traditional tribal bonds.
- Conquests spanned from China in the east to Persia and Russia in the west, often involving extreme violence and destruction.
Division and Governance of the Mongol Empire
- After Genghis Khan's death, the empire divided into four khanates, each ruled by his descendants.
- The Yuan Dynasty in China, led by Kublai Khan, marked a period of cultural flourishing, although the Mongol administration was authoritarian and class-based.
- The Golden Horde ruled over Russia, relying on tribute rather than direct occupation; Mongol influence lasted until the 18th century in Crimea.
- The Ilkhanate in Persia governed by co-opting local elites and eventually adopted Islam, but struggled with administration and overtaxed the populace.
Mongol Impact on Eurasia
- Mongol rule created a vast trade network, enabling unprecedented cross-cultural exchange and linking China with Western Europe.
- The Mongols had difficulty administering settled societies, leading to economic problems, rebellion, and ultimately the collapse of their empire.
- Successor states like Timur’s empire and the Ottoman Empire arose in the power vacuum after the Mongols.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Eurasia — The combined landmass of Europe and Asia.
- Steppe — Vast grasslands ideal for pastoralism and nomadic life.
- Pastoralist — A person whose lifestyle is based on livestock herding.
- Shaman — A religious figure believed to mediate with spirits in animistic religions.
- Khan/Khanate — A Central Asian ruler/territory ruled by a khan.
- Mandate of Heaven — Chinese belief that a ruler’s legitimacy is divinely granted.
- Tribute — Payment made by a subordinate state to a dominant one for protection or to avoid conflict.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review textbook chapters on the Mongol and Turkish empires.
- Prepare short summaries of each khanate’s key features for discussion.
- Study the impact of nomadic empires on trade and cross-cultural exchange.