Industrial Revolution: Working Conditions Overview

WORKING CONDITIONS IN FACTORIES As production shifted from in-home to in factories, owners sought ways to maximize their profits. They attempted to increase production and keep costs down through a variety of methods. * Long hours: During the Industrial Revolution, shifts were around 12-14 hours a day. Sometimes workers were expected to work even longer during especially busy times. * Low wages: male workers were paid about 15 shillings a week, and women and children earned much less: women were paid 7 shillings and children 3 shillings. To maximize profits, employers hired many women and children as they were a better bargain for the factory owner. Sometimes when boys reached adulthood, they were fired to avoid raising their wages. * Harsh discipline: To keep the workers in line, factory overseers used the punishment of "strapping" (hitting with a leather strap). Other punishments included hanging iron weights around children's necks, hanging them from the roof in baskets, nailing children's ears to the table, and dowsing them in water to keep them awake. * Fines: monetary punishments were imposed for talking or whistling, leaving the room without permission, or failing to keep machines clean. It was claimed that employers altered the time on the clocks to make their workers late so that they could fine them. Some employers set a quota of fines that their overseers had to reach each week. * Accidents: forcing children to crawl into dangerous, unguarded machinery led to many accidents. Up to 40% of accident patients at the Manchester Infirmary in 1833 were injured in factory accidents. * Health: cotton thread had to be spun in damp, warm conditions. Leaving work late at night and going straight out into the cold night air led to cases of pneumonia. The air was full of dust, which led to chest and lung diseases and loud noise made by machines damaged workers' hearing. * Parish apprentices: orphans from workhouses in some parts of England were "apprenticed" to factory owners, supposedly to “learn the textiles trade.” They worked 12-hour shifts, and slept in barracks attached to the factory in beds just vacated by children about to start the next shift. This practice was depicted in Charles Dickens’s classic novel Oliver Twist. Image result for factory working conditions industrial revolution A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery. In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions. Image result for poor factory working conditions industrial revolution Crowded factories with hot machinery often reached temperatures around 100 degrees Refer to caption Luddites smashing a power loom because they believed the new machinery hurt the workers Image result Children were often exposed to dangerous machines and sadly often lost limbs in the factories Image result for factory rules industrial revolution ________________ CHILD LABOR When the Industrial Revolution first came to Britain, there was a high demand for labor. Hoping for a better life, rural families relocated to the cities to find work. Sadly, most were disappointed when they arrived. The jobs available required long hours and offered little pay. In most cases, everyone in the family needed to work to simply to survive. A family would not be able to support itself if the children were not employed. This led to the high rise in child labor in factories. Not only were these children subject to long hours but they also endured some of the harshest conditions. Children were used to carry out hazardous jobs. Regardless of their youth and inexperience, children operated large, heavy, and dangerous equipment. Factories employing children were often very dangerous and accidents occurred frequently, resulting in injuring or even killing children on the job. The treatment of children in factories was often cruel, and the children's safety was neglected. Factory overseers would beat the children, verbally abuse them, and take no consideration for their safety. Children were ordered to move between machinery where adults could not fit, to fix broken machines. This was especially dangerous as the machinery could start working again with little time for the child to move out of harm’s way Lack of sleep and an over 12-hour work day in Britain contributed to mistakes and injuries. Many children lost limbs, were killed in gas explosions, crushed in or under the machinery, and burned. Machinery was not fenced off and children were exposed to the moving parts. Unguarded machinery was a major problem for children working in factories. This led to a large number of injuries in the cotton mills. Children could have their hands crushed by moving machines. If their hair became tangled in the machine, their scalps could be ripped off. Machinery often ran so quickly that fingers, arms and legs could easily get caught. The air was a threat to children as well, and they inhaled fumes and toxins that caused illness, chronic conditions or disease. The workers developed lung cancer from poisonous fumes. Image result for wages during the industrial revolution Image result for child labor industrial revolution "I have seen a little boy, only this winter, who works in the mill, and who lives within two hundred or three hundred yards of my own door; he is not yet six years old, and I have seen him, when he had a few coppers in his pocket, go to a beer shop, call for a glass of ale, and drink as boldly as any full-grown man, cursing and swearing." - Abraham Whitehead, a cloth merchant from Holmfirth who joined the campaign for factory legislation, told a parliamentary committee in 1832 Image result for Richard Oastler Image result for industrial revolution britain political cartoon Political cartoon depicting the evils of child labor Image result for industrial revolution britain child labor URBANIZATION AND LIVING CONDITIONS IN CITIES Cities grew very rapidly during the Industrial Revolution and the result was crowded, unsanitary cities which bred disease. * Pollution: coal was used to heat homes, cook food and heat water to produce steam to power machines in factories. The burning of coal created smoke, which darkened the sky and led to air pollution in the cities. * Overcrowding: due to the rapid influx of people moving to the cities, there were not enough houses for all the new arrivals. Slums were constructed quickly and haphazardly, with no government oversight or regulation. Low wages and high rents caused families to live in as small a space as possible. Sometimes whole families lived in one room. The houses were built very close together so there was little light or fresh air inside them. They did not have running water and people found it difficult to keep clean. Houses often suffered from damp due to their thin walls and roofs made out of cheap materials. Many households had to share a single outside toilet that was little more than a hole in the ground. * Disease: typhus, typhoid, tuberculosis and cholera all were rampant in the cities of England. Cholera reached England for the first time in 1830, and there were further major epidemics in 1832 and 1848. This waterborne disease affected all segments of society: rich and poor alike. Overcrowding, housing of a low standard and poor quality water supplies all helped spread disease. * Waste disposal: gutters were filled with trash and human waste, and the streets were covered in horse manure, collected by boys to sell to farmers. Human waste was discharged directly into the sewers, which flowed straight into rivers. In London, Parliament had to stop work because the smell from the Thames became too unbearable. People could get water from a variety of places, such as streams, wells and stand pipes, but this water was often polluted by human waste. Image result for class structure industrial revolution political cartoon Image result for women wages industrial revolution Image result for industrial revolution britain chart urbanization population growth Image result for industrial revolution britain chart urbanization population growth ROLES OF WOMEN Prior to the industrial revolution, most cloth was produced in the home by women working on spinning wheels and sewing by hand. This “cottage system” was slower but the conditions were favorable in comparison to factory production. Women were responsible for determining their own work hours and sold the cloth themselves to enrich their families. This type of production was called the “domestic system” because cloth was produced in the home. As the textile industry boomed, work moved out of the home and into a factory, which used a central power source to run its machines. Water power was used in most of the early factories, but improvements in the steam engine made it possible to expand factories and build them away from sources of water. Women would now operate machines in factories and no longer would own the means of production. It also made the textile industry a less skilled industry so women textile workers made very low wages. The most dramatic productivity growth as a result of mechanization occurred in the cotton industry. The invention of James Hargreaves’ spinning jenny (1764), Richard Arkwright’s “throstle” or “water frame” (1769), and Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule (1779, so named because it combined features of the two earlier machines) revolutionized spinning. Britain began to manufacture cotton cloth, and declining prices for the cloth encouraged both domestic consumption and export. Machines also appeared for other parts of the cloth-making process, the most important of which was Edmund Cartwright’s powerloom, which was adopted slowly because of imperfections in the early designs, but was widely used by the 1830s. While cotton was the most important textile of the Industrial Revolution, there were advances in machinery for silk, flax, and wool production as well. Women were especially susceptible to injuries in factories as their long hair and voluminous dresses could get caught in the machinery. Women were paid such low wages that often they were reliant upon men to earn enough to survive. If a woman lost her spouse, she would sometimes need to resort to prostitution to make ends meet. IN A WOMAN’S OWN WORDS: Image result for women industrial revolution factory worker interview "I work at Mr. Wilson's mill. I think the youngest child is about 7. I daresay there are 20 under 9 years. It is about half past five by our clock at home when we go in....We come out at seven by the mill. We never stop to take our meals, except at dinner. William Crookes is the overlooker in our room. He is cross-tempered sometimes. He does not beat me; he beats the little children if they do not do their work right....I have sometimes seen the little children drop asleep or so, but not lately. If they are catched asleep they get the strap. They are always very tired at night....I can read a little; I can't write. I used to go to school before I went to the mill; I have since I am sixteen." -Hannah Goode, factory worker Amount Earned per week in the 1780s Men Women Children 10-15 shillings 5 shillings 1 shilling (In the early 1800’s, one pound of tea cost 6 shillings, and rent cost 5 shillings a month.) http://eh.net/encyclopedia-graphics/burnette.women.workers.britian.figure4.jpg Women often were relegated to the less skilled jobs of operating smaller machinery and were therefore compensated less than men OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION IN THE 1851 CENSUS OF BRITAIN Occupational Category Males (thousands) Females (thousands) Percent Female Armed Forces 63 0 0.0 Domestic Services 193 1135 85.5 Transportation & Communications 433 13 2.9 Agriculture 1788 229 11.4 Fishing 36 1 2.7 Mining 383 11 2.8 Metal Manufactures 536 36 6.3 Building & Construction 496 1 0.2 Bricks, Cement, Pottery, Glass 75 15 16.7 Paper & Printing 62 16 20.5 Textiles 661 635 49.0 Clothing 418 491 54.0 Food, Drink, Lodging 348 53 13.2 Image result for women in the industrial revolution Many women worked as seamstresses using the new sewing machine Image result for advertising in the industrial revolution CHANGING CLASS STRUCTURE Before the Industrial Revolution, class structure in England was formed primarily around occupational groups: artisans, merchants, and farmer. In farming villages, people were divided into the landowning elite and the peasantry, and the middle class included only a small number of people. The age of industry brought with it changes in class structure. Ownership of land ceased to be the chief distinction between social classes. There was increased social mobility but also a widening gap between the rich and poor. A new social class developed: the industrial capitalists (owners of wealth used in business) who organized, oversaw, and ran the factories. These people came from a variety of backgrounds. Some were born into wealthy families, others were inventors, farmers, or merchants. All managed to become rich and powerful through their adaptability to innovations, leadership, and some luck. Related to the industrial capitalists was a growing urban middle class. This included people in long-established professions, such as doctors and lawyers, as well as the new merchants, shopkeepers, factory clerks, and managers who arose as a result of large–scale industrialization. Middle-class men worked for a living, but in non-manual occupations – from rich lawyers and bankers, through teachers and engineers, down to shopkeepers and clerks. Many middle-class people were 'self-made men', who had created their wealth through success in business. Very few women of the middle classes worked, although some supported their husbands running shops and small businesses. The “cult of domesticity” was an idea that women should work in the domestic sphere, taking care of the home and the children. Working outside the home was frowned upon for women of the higher classes. As labor was so inexpensive, even the poorest middle-class home would have a servant A less fortunate effect of the Industrial Revolution was the growth of the urban poor, a much larger group. These were poverty-stricken workers who congregated in the slums around factories and lived in appalling conditions. It was extremely difficult for children of working-class parents to move to a higher class. Upward mobility required education which was often a luxury unavailable to children working in the factories. THE MIDDLE CLASS Image result for class structure industrial revolution THE WORKING CLASS Image result for class structure industrial revolution Image result for frederick engels Image result for middle class industrial revolution britain Magazines selling fashionable clothing were popular among the middle class who aspired to appear more like the upper class EDUCATION During the 1700s, few children received any formal education. Although some wealthy people sponsored Charity Schools for poor children, many working-class children still were not able to attend school. Often this was because they did not have enough clothing or were forced to work or beg on the streets during the day to help support their families. Those children who were fortunate enough to attend school tended to receive only minimal education. The nineteenth century led to changes and advances in education. The government became worried about the large number of children working in factories all day and began providing more financial support to schools. Laws enacted during the nineteenth century increasingly mandated(ordered) that children be educated for a certain number of hours per day, and insisted that all students learn the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic. However, even with these acts, the majority of workers could not read or write. In response to the new, competitive world of industry, technical schools began to develop. This new type of secondary school provided technical and industrial training for young people who had finished grammar school and were waiting to begin an apprenticeship a few years later. This effectively increased the ability of children to become skilled industrial workers in the new age of manufacturing and technology. DAME SCHOOLS were usually run by one woman. The 'dame' often did her best, but she was a child-minder not a trained teacher. Often quite poor herself, she took as many children as she could cram into her house. Poor parents working hard to earn a living paid her a few pennies a week to look after their children, and perhaps teach them the alphabet or how to sew. Most of the time, the children amused themselves and did not learn very much. Image result for dame schools england RAGGED SCHOOLS were schools for poor children. One of the first was started in Portsmouth by a shoe-mender named John Pounds. Older children helped to teach younger ones. Ragged Schools were often in one room of a house, or in an old barn. From 1833 factory owners were supposed to provide at least 2 hours of education every day for child-workers, but not many children actually got lessons. http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rmhttp/schools/primaryhistory/images/victorian_britain/children_at_school/v_ragged_school.jpg A 'ragged school' for girls. Girls and boys were usually taught separately. http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rmhttp/schools/primaryhistory/images/victorian_britain/children_at_school/v_brook_street_ragged.jpg At this London 'ragged school' for poor boys, the boys did carpentry and other work. 'Book-learning' (reading, writing and arithmetic) was an extra. Image result for discipline victorian schools england A primer from a Victorian school Changing Energy Sources The new forms of energy used during the Industrial Revolution were really important because they helped change how things were made, how people worked, and how the world worked in general. Before the Industrial Revolution, most energy came from natural sources like water, wind, and muscle power (people and animals). But during the revolution, new sources of energy, like coal, steam, and electricity, were used to power machines that made factories more efficient and productive. 1. Coal: Coal became the most important energy source during the Industrial Revolution. People used it to heat water and create steam. This steam powered engines like the steam engine, which helped machines run without relying on human or animal labor. Coal also powered trains and ships, making it easier to transport goods and people over long distances. 2. Steam power: Steam engines were a huge leap forward. They allowed factories to move away from rivers (where water power was needed) and set up in cities or anywhere coal could be found. Steam power also helped in transportation, like the steam-powered locomotives and boats, which made trade and travel faster. 3. Electricity: Although electricity wasn’t as widely used during the early Industrial Revolution, it eventually became a game-changer. It helped power factories, light homes, and even allowed new inventions, like the light bulb, to be created, making life and work easier. These new forms of energy made production faster, cheaper, and more efficient, leading to massive changes in society. Factories could produce more goods in less time, leading to economic growth, urbanization (more people moving to cities for work), and even changes in the way people lived and worked. * By adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, people are supercharging the natural greenhouse effect, causing global temperature to rise. * Each year, human activities release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than natural processes can remove, causing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to increase. * Atmospheric carbon dioxide is now 50 percent higher than it was before the Industrial Revolution. (NOAA, climate.gov) Air pollution in Windes, a town outside of Liverpool and close to Manchester, England in the late 19th century ________________ Charles Dickens, Hard Times (1854, excerpt) In his novel Hard Times (1854), Charles Dickens created the fictional city of Coketown to draw attention to some of the negative side effects caused by industrialization. In the excerpt below, Coketown stands in for Manchester and the many other industrial towns of northern England. ________________ . . . Let us strike the key-note, Coketown, before pursuing our tune. It was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it; but as matters stood, it was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a savage. It was a town of machinery and tall chimneys, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never got uncoiled. It had a black canal in it, and a river that ran purple with ill-smelling dye, and vast piles of building full of windows where there was a rattling and a trembling all day long, and where the piston of the steam-engine worked monotonously up and down, like the head of an elephant in a state of melancholy madness. . . .

* Long hours: During the Industrial Revolution, shifts were around 12-14 hours a day. Sometimes workers were expected to work even longer during especially busy times.

* Low wages: male workers were paid about 15 shillings a week, and women and children earned much less: women were paid 7 shillings and children 3 shillings. To maximize profits, employers hired many women and children as they were a better bargain for the factory owner. Sometimes when boys reached adulthood, they were fired to avoid raising their wages.

* Harsh discipline: To keep the workers in line, factory overseers used the punishment of "strapping" (hitting with a leather strap). Other punishments included hanging iron weights around children's necks, hanging them from the roof in baskets, nailing children's ears to the table, and dowsing them in water to keep them awake.

* Fines: monetary punishments were imposed for talking or whistling, leaving the room without permission, or failing to keep machines clean. It was claimed that employers altered the time on the clocks to make their workers late so that they could fine them. Some employers set a quota of fines that their overseers had to reach each week.

* Accidents: forcing children to crawl into dangerous, unguarded machinery led to many accidents. Up to 40% of accident patients at the Manchester Infirmary in 1833 were injured in factory accidents.

* Health: cotton thread had to be spun in damp, warm conditions. Leaving work late at night and going straight out into the cold night air led to cases of pneumonia. The air was full of dust, which led to chest and lung diseases and loud noise made by machines damaged workers' hearing.

* Parish apprentices: orphans from workhouses in some parts of England were "apprenticed" to factory owners, supposedly to “learn the textiles trade.” They worked 12-hour shifts, and slept in barracks attached to the factory in beds just vacated by children about to start the next shift. This practice was depicted in Charles Dickens’s classic novel Oliver Twist.

Image result for factory working conditions industrial revolution

A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.  In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved mine working conditions.

Image result for poor factory working conditions industrial revolution

Crowded factories with hot machinery often reached temperatures around 100 degrees

Refer to caption

Luddites smashing a power loom because they believed the new machinery hurt the workers

Image result

Children were often exposed to dangerous machines and sadly often lost limbs in the factories
 Image result for factory rules industrial revolution

________________

CHILD LABOR
When the Industrial Revolution first came to Britain, there was a high demand for labor. Hoping for a better life, rural families relocated to the cities to find work. Sadly, most were disappointed when they arrived. The jobs available required long hours and offered little pay.

In most cases, everyone in the family needed to work to simply to survive. A family would not be able to support itself if the children were not employed. This led to the high rise in child labor in factories.

Not only were these children subject to long hours but they also endured some of the harshest conditions. Children were used to carry out hazardous jobs. Regardless of their youth and inexperience, children operated large, heavy, and dangerous equipment. Factories employing children were often very dangerous and accidents occurred frequently, resulting in injuring or even killing children on the job. The treatment of children in factories was often cruel, and the children's safety was neglected. Factory overseers would beat the children, verbally abuse them, and take no consideration for their safety. Children were ordered to move between machinery where adults could not fit, to fix broken machines. This was especially dangerous as the machinery could start working again with little time for the child to move out of harm’s way

Lack of sleep and an over 12-hour work day in Britain contributed to mistakes and injuries. Many children lost limbs, were killed in gas explosions, crushed in or under the machinery, and burned.

Machinery was not fenced off and children were exposed to the moving parts. Unguarded machinery was a major problem for children working in factories. This led to a large number of injuries in the cotton mills. Children could have their hands crushed by moving machines. If their hair became tangled in the machine, their scalps could be ripped off. Machinery often ran so quickly that fingers, arms and legs could easily get caught. The air was a threat to children as well, and they inhaled fumes and toxins that caused illness, chronic conditions or disease. The workers developed lung cancer from poisonous fumes.

Image result for wages during the industrial revolution

Image result for child labor industrial revolution

"I have seen a little boy, only this winter, who works in the mill, and who lives within two hundred or three hundred yards of my own door; he is not yet six years old, and I have seen him, when he had a few coppers in his pocket, go to a beer shop, call for a glass of ale, and drink as boldly as any full-grown man, cursing and swearing."

- Abraham Whitehead, a cloth merchant from Holmfirth who joined the campaign for factory legislation, told a parliamentary committee in 1832

Image result for Richard Oastler

Image result for industrial revolution britain political cartoon

Political cartoon depicting the evils of child labor

Image result for industrial revolution britain child labor

URBANIZATION AND LIVING CONDITIONS IN CITIES

Cities grew very rapidly during the Industrial Revolution and the result was crowded, unsanitary cities which bred disease.

* Pollution: coal was used to heat homes, cook food and heat water to produce steam to power machines in factories. The burning of coal created smoke, which darkened the sky and led to air pollution in the cities.

* Overcrowding: due to the rapid influx of people moving to the cities, there were not enough houses for all the new arrivals. Slums were constructed quickly and haphazardly, with no government oversight or regulation. Low wages and high rents caused families to live in as small a space as possible. Sometimes whole families lived in one room. The houses were built very close together so there was little light or fresh air inside them. They did not have running water and people found it difficult to keep clean. Houses often suffered from damp due to their thin walls and roofs made out of cheap materials. Many households had to share a single outside toilet that was little more than a hole in the ground.

* Disease: typhus, typhoid, tuberculosis and cholera all were rampant in the cities of England. Cholera reached England for the first time in 1830, and there were further major epidemics in 1832 and 1848. This waterborne disease affected all segments of society: rich and poor alike. Overcrowding, housing of a low standard and poor quality water supplies all helped spread disease.

* Waste disposal: gutters were filled with trash and human waste, and the streets were covered in horse manure, collected by boys to sell to farmers. Human waste was discharged directly into the sewers, which flowed straight into rivers. In London, Parliament had to stop work because the smell from the Thames became too unbearable. People could get water from a variety of places, such as streams, wells and stand pipes, but this water was often polluted by human waste.

Image result for class structure industrial revolution political cartoon

Image result for women wages industrial revolution

Image result for industrial revolution britain chart urbanization population growth

ROLES OF WOMEN
Prior to the industrial revolution, most cloth was produced in the home by women working on spinning wheels and sewing by hand. This “cottage system” was slower but the conditions were favorable in comparison to factory production. Women were responsible for determining their own work hours and sold the cloth themselves to enrich their families. This type of production was called the “domestic system” because cloth was produced in the home.

As the textile industry boomed, work moved out of the home and into a factory, which used a central power source to run its machines. Water power was used in most of the early factories, but improvements in the steam engine made it possible to expand factories and build them away from sources of water. Women would now operate machines in factories and no longer would own the means of production. It also made the textile industry a less skilled industry so women textile workers made very low wages.

The most dramatic productivity growth as a result of mechanization occurred in the cotton industry. The invention of James Hargreaves’ spinning jenny (1764), Richard Arkwright’s “throstle” or “water frame” (1769), and Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule (1779, so named because it combined features of the two earlier machines) revolutionized spinning. Britain began to manufacture cotton cloth, and declining prices for the cloth encouraged both domestic consumption and export. Machines also appeared for other parts of the cloth-making process, the most important of which was Edmund Cartwright’s powerloom, which was adopted slowly because of imperfections in the early designs, but was widely used by the 1830s. While cotton was the most important textile of the Industrial Revolution, there were advances in machinery for silk, flax, and wool production as well.

Women were especially susceptible to injuries in factories as their long hair and voluminous dresses could get caught in the machinery. Women were paid such low wages that often they were reliant upon men to earn enough to survive. If a woman lost her spouse, she would sometimes need to resort to prostitution to make ends meet.

IN A WOMAN’S OWN WORDS:  Image result for women industrial revolution factory worker interview 
"I work at Mr. Wilson's mill. I think the youngest child is about 7. I daresay there are 20 under 9 years. It is about half past five by our clock at home when we go in....We come out at seven by the mill. We never stop to take our meals, except at dinner.
William Crookes is the overlooker in our room. He is cross-tempered sometimes. He does not beat me; he beats the little children if they do not do their work right....I have sometimes seen the little children drop asleep or so, but not lately. If they are catched asleep they get the strap. They are always very tired at night....I can read a little; I can't write. I used to go to school before I went to the mill; I have since I am sixteen."
-Hannah Goode, factory worker

Amount Earned per week in the 1780s
Men
	Women
	Children
	10-15 shillings
	5 shillings
	1 shilling

(In the early 1800’s, one pound of tea cost 6 shillings, and rent cost 5 shillings a month.)

http://eh.net/encyclopedia-graphics/burnette.women.workers.britian.figure4.jpg  
Women often were relegated to the less skilled jobs of operating smaller machinery and were therefore compensated less than men

OCCUPATIONAL DISTRIBUTION IN THE 1851 CENSUS OF BRITAIN
Occupational Category
	Males (thousands)
	Females (thousands)
	Percent Female
	Armed Forces
	63
	0
	0.0
	Domestic Services
	193
	1135
	85.5
	Transportation & Communications
	433
	13
	2.9
	Agriculture
	1788
	229
	11.4
	Fishing
	36
	1
	2.7
	Mining
	383
	11
	2.8
	Metal Manufactures
	536
	36
	6.3
	Building & Construction
	496
	1
	0.2
	Bricks, Cement, Pottery, Glass
	75
	15
	16.7
	Paper & Printing
	62
	16
	20.5
	Textiles
	661
	635
	49.0
	Clothing
	418
	491
	54.0
	Food, Drink, Lodging
	348
	53
	13.2

Image result for women in the industrial revolution

Many women worked as seamstresses using the new 
sewing machine

Image result for advertising in the industrial revolution

CHANGING CLASS STRUCTURE

Before the Industrial Revolution, class structure in England was formed primarily around occupational groups: artisans, merchants, and farmer. In farming villages, people were divided into the landowning elite and the peasantry, and the middle class included only a small number of people.

The age of industry brought with it changes in class structure. Ownership of land ceased to be the chief distinction between social classes. There was increased social mobility but also a widening gap between the rich and poor.

A new social class developed: the industrial capitalists (owners of wealth used in business) who organized, oversaw, and ran the factories. These people came from a variety of backgrounds. Some were born into wealthy families, others were inventors, farmers, or merchants. All managed to become rich and powerful through their adaptability to innovations, leadership, and some luck.

Related to the industrial capitalists was a growing urban middle class. This included people in long-established professions, such as doctors and lawyers, as well as the new merchants, shopkeepers, factory clerks, and managers who arose as a result of large–scale industrialization. Middle-class men worked for a living, but in non-manual occupations – from rich lawyers and bankers, through teachers and engineers, down to shopkeepers and clerks. Many middle-class people were 'self-made men', who had created their wealth through success in business. Very few women of the middle classes worked, although some supported their husbands running shops and small businesses. The “cult of domesticity” was an idea that women should work in the domestic sphere, taking care of the home and the children. Working outside the home was frowned upon for women of the higher classes. As labor was so inexpensive, even the poorest middle-class home would have a servant

A less fortunate effect of the Industrial Revolution was the growth of the urban poor, a much larger group. These were poverty-stricken workers who congregated in the slums around factories and lived in appalling conditions. It was extremely difficult for children of working-class parents to move to a higher class. Upward mobility required education which was often a luxury unavailable to children working in the factories.

THE MIDDLE CLASS
 Image result for class structure industrial revolution

THE WORKING CLASS
 Image result for class structure industrial revolution

Image result for frederick engels

Image result for middle class industrial revolution britain

Magazines selling fashionable clothing were popular among the middle class who aspired to appear more like the upper class

EDUCATION

During the 1700s, few children received any formal education.  Although some wealthy people sponsored Charity Schools for poor children, many working-class children still were not able to attend school.  Often this was because they did not have enough clothing or were forced to work or beg on the streets during the day to help support their families.  Those children who were fortunate enough to attend school tended to receive only minimal education.
        
The nineteenth century led to changes and advances in education.  The government became worried about the large number of children working in factories all day and began providing more financial support to schools.  Laws enacted during the nineteenth century increasingly mandated(ordered) that children be educated for a certain number of hours per day, and insisted that all students learn the basic skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic. However, even with these acts, the majority of workers could not read or write.

In response to the new, competitive world of industry, technical schools began to develop.  This new type of secondary school provided technical and industrial training for young people who had finished grammar school and were waiting to begin an apprenticeship a few years later.  This effectively increased the ability of children to become skilled industrial workers in the new age of manufacturing and technology.

DAME SCHOOLS were usually run by one woman. The 'dame' often did her best, but she was a child-minder not a trained teacher. Often quite poor herself, she took as many children as she could cram into her house. Poor parents working hard to earn a living paid her a few pennies a week to look after their children, and perhaps teach them the alphabet or how to sew. Most of the time, the children amused themselves and did not learn very much.

Image result for dame schools england

RAGGED SCHOOLS were schools for poor children. One of the first was started in Portsmouth by a shoe-mender named John Pounds. Older children helped to teach younger ones. Ragged Schools were often in one room of a house, or in an old barn. From 1833 factory owners were supposed to provide at least 2 hours of education every day for child-workers, but not many children actually got lessons.

http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rmhttp/schools/primaryhistory/images/victorian_britain/children_at_school/v_ragged_school.jpg

A 'ragged school' for girls. Girls and boys were usually taught separately.

http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/rmhttp/schools/primaryhistory/images/victorian_britain/children_at_school/v_brook_street_ragged.jpg

At this London 'ragged school' for poor boys, the boys did carpentry and other work. 'Book-learning' (reading, writing and arithmetic) was an extra.

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A primer from a Victorian school

Changing Energy Sources
The new forms of energy used during the Industrial Revolution were really important because they helped change how things were made, how people worked, and how the world worked in general.
Before the Industrial Revolution, most energy came from natural sources like water, wind, and muscle power (people and animals). But during the revolution, new sources of energy, like coal, steam, and electricity, were used to power machines that made factories more efficient and productive.
1. Coal: Coal became the most important energy source during the Industrial Revolution. People used it to heat water and create steam. This steam powered engines like the steam engine, which helped machines run without relying on human or animal labor. Coal also powered trains and ships, making it easier to transport goods and people over long distances.
2. Steam power: Steam engines were a huge leap forward. They allowed factories to move away from rivers (where water power was needed) and set up in cities or anywhere coal could be found. Steam power also helped in transportation, like the steam-powered locomotives and boats, which made trade and travel faster.
3. Electricity: Although electricity wasn’t as widely used during the early Industrial Revolution, it eventually became a game-changer. It helped power factories, light homes, and even allowed new inventions, like the light bulb, to be created, making life and work easier.
These new forms of energy made production faster, cheaper, and more efficient, leading to massive changes in society. Factories could produce more goods in less time, leading to economic growth, urbanization (more people moving to cities for work), and even changes in the way people lived and worked.

* By adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere, people are supercharging the natural greenhouse effect, causing global temperature to rise. 
* Each year, human activities release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than natural processes can remove, causing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to increase.
* Atmospheric carbon dioxide is now 50 percent higher than it was before the Industrial Revolution.
 (NOAA, climate.gov)

Air pollution in Windes, a town outside of Liverpool and close to Manchester, England in the late 19th century

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Charles Dickens, Hard Times (1854, excerpt)
 
In his novel Hard Times (1854), Charles Dickens created the fictional city of Coketown to draw attention to some of the negative side effects caused by industrialization. In the excerpt below, Coketown stands in for Manchester and the many other industrial towns of northern England. 
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. . . Let us strike the key-note, Coketown, before pursuing our tune.
 
         It was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it; but as matters stood, it was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a savage. It was a town of machinery and tall chimneys, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never got uncoiled. It had a black canal in it, and a river that ran purple with ill-smelling dye, and vast piles of building full of windows where there was a rattling and a trembling all day long, and where the piston of the steam-engine worked monotonously up and down, like the head of an elephant in a state of melancholy madness. . . .

Transcript for:Industrial Revolution: Working Conditions Overview

Transcript for:
Industrial Revolution: Working Conditions Overview