AQA Psychology A-Level Notes

Topic 2: Memory

Part 1: Coding, Capacity, and Duration of Memory

• Coding
  • Acoustic in Short-Term Memory (STM)
  • Semantic in Long-Term Memory (LTM)
  • Baddeley (1966) study on recall of similar words
• Capacity
  • STM: 7 ± 2 items (Miller)
  • LTM: Unlimited
  • Jacobs: Mean letter span (7.3), digit span (9.3)
• Duration
  • STM: 18-30 seconds (Petersen et al., 1959)
  • LTM: Unlimited (Bahrick et al., 1975)
• Issues with Historical Research
  • Lack of standardization and control
  • Example: Jacobs' method vs. modern lab experiments
• Strengths and Limitations
  • Bahrick et al.'s study: High ecological validity
  • Petersen et al. and Miller et al.'s studies: Low mundane realism

Part 2: The Multi-Store Model of Memory

• Components
  • Sensory Register: High capacity, <0.5-second duration
  • STM: Acoustically encoded, limited capacity, short duration
  • LTM: Semantically encoded, unlimited capacity/duration
• Processes
  • Maintenance rehearsal: Keeps info in STM, transfers to LTM
  • Types of LTM: Procedural, semantic, episodic (Tuvling et al.)
• Criticisms
  • Does not reflect different types of LTM retrieval
  • Craik and Watkins: Elaborative vs. Prolonged rehearsal
  • Shallice and Warrington: Multiple types of STM suggested

Part 3: Types of Long-Term Memory

• Episodic Memory: Personal events, conscious recall
• Semantic Memory: Knowledge about the world
• Procedural Memory: Skills, unconscious recall
• Neurological Basis
  • Different brain areas for different LTM types (Petersen et al.)
• Applications
  • Targeted treatments for cognitive impairments
  • HM and Clive Wearing case studies: Support separate LTM types

Part 4: The Working Memory Model

• Components
  • Central Executive: Attentional process, limited capacity
  • Phonological Loop: Auditory info, maintenance rehearsal
  • Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: Visual/spatial info, limited capacity
  • Episodic Buffer: Integrates data, links STM to LTM
• Criticisms and Support
  • Undefined central executive
  • KF case study supports separate processing components
  • Dual-task performance and brain activation studies support WMM

Part 5: Explanations for Forgetting: Interference

• Types
  • Retroactive: New memories block old
  • Proactive: Old memories block new
• Studies
  • McGeoch and McDonald (1931): Similarity increases forgetting
  • Baddeley and Hitch: Rugby players study
• Criticisms
  • Artificial stimuli and short time frames in lab studies

Part 6: Explanations for Forgetting: Retrieval Failure

• Retrieval Cues
  • Context-dependent: External cues
  • State-dependent: Internal cues
• Studies
  • Godden and Baddeley (1975): Deep-water divers
  • Carter and Cassaday (1998): Anti-histamines
• Criticisms
  • Poor ecological validity and generalizability
  • Encoding specificity principle's cyclical reasoning

Part 7: Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information

• Leading Questions
  • Loftus and Palmer (1974): Influence on speed estimates
• Post-Event Discussions
  • Gabbert et al. (2003): Memory conformity
• Criticisms
  • Own age bias and demand characteristics
  • Artificial tasks reduce ecological validity

Part 8: Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety

• Effects of Anxiety
  • Negative: Johnson and Scott (1976) weapon focus
  • Positive: Yuille and Cutshall (1986) real-life shooting
• Yerkes-Dodson Law: Inverted-U relationship
• Criticisms
  • Ethical issues and uncontrolled extraneous variables

Part 9: Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony: Cognitive Interviews

• Stages
  • Report everything, Reinstate the context, Change the perspective, Reverse the order
• Enhanced Cognitive Interview: Focus on social dynamics
• Criticisms and Applications
  • Time-consuming, specialist skills required
  • Increased recall of correct and incorrect information