Overview
This lecture covers the life, military campaigns, and legacy of Alexander the Great, focusing on his conquests, battles against the Persian Empire, and the aftermath of his empire's rapid expansion.
Background: Ancient Greece and Macedonia
- Ancient Greece developed art, philosophy, and military tactics, with major city-states Athens and Sparta.
- Persian invasions led to famous battles like Thermopylae and Salamis, followed by the Greek victory at Plataea.
- Infighting among Greek city-states left them weak; Macedonia, under Philip II, rose to power and reformed the army.
- Philip II united Greece in the Hellenic League and planned to invade Persia but was assassinated.
Alexander’s Rise and Early Campaigns
- Alexander, tutored by Aristotle, became king at 20, secured his rule by quelling revolts and destroying Thebes.
- In 334 BC, Alexander invaded Asia Minor with an army of 40,000, using the Macedonian phalanx and elite Companion Cavalry.
Key Battles Against Persia
- At the Battle of the Granicus, Alexander defeated Persian satraps by boldly attacking across a river.
- The Macedonian phalanx, hypaspists, and cavalry played key roles in overcoming the Persian cavalry and Greek mercenaries.
- After taking coastal cities, Alexander cut off Persian naval power.
- At Issus, Alexander outmaneuvered Darius III, causing Darius to flee and capturing his family.
- The siege and fall of Tyre and then Egypt (where Alexander was pronounced Pharaoh) consolidated his control of the eastern Mediterranean.
Conquest of the Persian Empire
- At Gaugamela, Alexander used feigned maneuvers to break the Persian center; Darius fled and was later murdered.
- Alexander was recognized as ruler in Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis (which he burned in revenge for earlier Persian attacks on Greece).
- He continued east to subdue revolts and pursued the usurper Bessus, founding cities along the way.
Challenges, Mutiny, and the Indian Campaign
- Alexander faced plots and dissent among his officers, including executing Philotas and Parmenion.
- Continued fighting in Central Asia led to harsh campaigns and local resistance.
- Marriage to Roxana helped secure his rule.
- Alexander crossed into India, defeated King Porus at the Hydaspes, but his troops refused to march further east.
Return and Final Years
- The return through the Gedrosian desert cost many lives due to harsh conditions.
- At Susa, Alexander promoted integration between Greeks and Persians through mass marriages and training of Persian youth.
- Discontent among Macedonians led to a mutiny at Opis, which Alexander quelled.
- After Hephaestion’s death, Alexander planned new campaigns but died suddenly at age 32 in Babylon.
Legacy and Division of the Empire
- Alexander died undefeated; his empire stretched from Greece to India but fractured after his death.
- His generals, the Diadochi, fought for control; his family was killed.
- The Hellenistic Age spread Greek culture across the former empire, influencing art, science, and governance.
Key Terms & Definitions
- Phalanx — dense infantry formation of soldiers with long spears (sarissas) used by Macedonians.
- Companion Cavalry — elite Macedonian horsemen led often by Alexander himself.
- Satrapy/Satrap — province of the Persian Empire, ruled by a governor.
- Hellenic League — alliance of Greek city-states under Macedonian leadership.
- Proskynesis — Persian ritual of prostration before the king, rejected by Greeks.
- Diadochi — Alexander's generals and successors who fought over his empire.
Action Items / Next Steps
- Review the major battles: Granicus, Issus, Gaugamela, Hydaspes.
- Study the structure of the Macedonian army and key tactics.
- Read about the spread of Hellenistic culture after Alexander’s death.